~History(in+English)

media type="custom" key="524395"media type="custom" key="470927"media type="custom" key="470923" = = toc =**Osama bin Laden**=

Osama bin Laden inherited great wealth from his family. A follower of the religion of Islam, bin Laden used his fortune to wage war against countries he saw as enemies of the Islamic religion. EARLY LIFEmedia type="custom" key="470925" Osama bin Laden was born in Saudi Arabia, a country in the Middle East. His father owned a big construction company. Like most other Saudi Arabians, the bin Ladens were followers of Islam. People who follow Islam are called Muslims. Young Osama embraced a special view of Islam. He accepted fundamentalist teachings. He believed that Muslims should live as they did when Islam began 14 centuries ago. WHAT DID BIN LADEN WANT? Bin Laden wanted to fight those who he saw as enemies of Muslims. In 1979, he got his chance. A communist country, the Soviet Union, invaded Afghanistan, a Muslim country. Bin Laden went to Afghanistan to fight the Soviets. In 1988, while in Afghanistan, bin Laden founded a group called al-Qaeda. (Al-Qaeda is an Arabic phrase that means “the Base”.) Bin Laden wanted al-Qaeda to lead a jihad (holy war) against all nations that he considered to be against Islam. In 1989, the Soviets left Afghanistan. Bin Laden returned to live in Saudi Arabia. Then in 1991, the United States led a war against the Muslim country of Iraq. During that war, the United States based troops in Saudi Arabia. Now bin Laden declared that the United States was the main enemy of Islam. BIN LADEN AND TERRORISM In 1992, bin Laden moved to Sudan, an African country ruled by Muslims. From there, he began to direct terrorist attacks by al-Qaeda. In a terrorist attack, individuals or small groups hurt or kill ordinary people. They do this to create fear among their enemies. Bin Laden was accused of planning several big terrorist attacks over the next eight years. In 1993, a bomb damaged the World Trade Center in New York City. In 1996, terrorists blew up an apartment building in Saudi Arabia, where many Americans lived. In 1998, two U.S. embassies in Africa were bombed, killing hundreds of people. In 2000, an attack on the U.S. Navy ship //Cole// killed 17 sailors. TERRORIST ATTACKS ON AMERICAN SOIL Then came al-Qaeda’s biggest terrorist attack of all. On September 11, 2001, a group of men hijacked four airplanes. They flew two of them into the twin towers of the World Trade Center. Another airplane crashed into the Pentagon near Washington, D.C. Another crashed in Pennsylvania. The attacks killed about 3,000 people. The United States struck back by bombing Afghanistan. That’s where bin Laden was hiding as a guest of the country’s ruling group. The bombing forced this group, the Taliban, to flee. But bin Laden was not found. Osama bin Laden Osama bin Laden founded a terrorist group called al-Qaeda in 1988. He led violent attacks against the United States and other countries he saw as enemies

=Iulius Caesar= Was Julius Caesar mostly interested in serving the people whom he ruled? Or was he only interested in grabbing power? People who met the Roman statesman could not agree. Caesar was a brilliant soldier and a clever, capable ruler. But he was also extremely ambitious. A FAMOUS FAMILY Caesar was born in 100 bc, to one of Rome’s most famous families. But his family had many enemies, and Caesar thought it best to leave Rome. He trained as a soldier and went to study in Greece. But he hoped for a political career. Caesar returned to Rome in 73 bc and made plans to run for office. He worked on the election campaigns of army general Pompey and Crassus, a very rich noble. The men were running for consul, which was then the highest office in Rome. To win support for the candidates, Caesar invited citizens to attend free gladiator shows in which men fought each other with swords. In 59 bc, Caesar was voted consul. The next year, he became governor of Gaul (a large Roman province in Western Europe). WAR HERO In Gaul, Caesar won famous victories against German and Celtic tribes. Then he invaded Britain and defeated the Britons. To celebrate—and boast—he wrote a book about his military successes in Gaul. Caesar’s success made Pompey jealous, and he tried to get Caesar removed as commander in Gaul. Furious with his former friend, Caesar declared war. Pompey ran away to Greece and then Egypt, but Caesar followed him. Pompey was murdered in Egypt before Caesar arrived. Caesar spent some time in Egypt. He helped put queen Cleopatra back on the throne as Egypt’s ruler. Cleopatra’s brother had removed her from power. Next, Caesar marched east, to crush a rebellion in what is now Turkey. TOO MUCH POWER? In 45 bc, Caesar was back in Rome. He was named dictator for life and given total political power. He reformed the law, reorganized taxes, and introduced a new calendar. We still use a calendar based on the Julian calendar. He named the month of July after himself. Caesar also commanded the Roman army, and was chief priest of the Roman religion. Many Romans admired him, but others felt uneasy that he had so much power. Some senators felt the Roman Senate should have more power. These senators stabbed Caesar to death on March 15 in 44 bc. March 15 was known as the Ides of March in the Roman calendar. When people say, “Beware the Ides of March,” they are referring to the plot to kill Caesar and the possibility of unknown danger lurking nearby. Death of Julius Caesar Julius Caesar was killed by his political enemies in 44 bc. Caesar had made himself dictator, or supreme ruler, of Rome a few years earlier, and his enemies feared his growing power.

=Buddha=

Siddhartha Gautama, the man who became known as Buddha, could have led a comfortable, carefree life. But he devoted himself to a search for truth and understanding so that he could help end the suffering of other people. Late in life, Gautama was given the name Buddha, which means “enlightened one.” Buddha was considered enlightened because he had gained understanding of spiritual matters. His teachings form the basis of Buddhism, one of the world's major religions. BORN TO A FAMILY OF WARRIORS Buddha was born around 563 bc in Nepal. His family were nobles and warriors. They wanted him to be a warrior, too. But from childhood, Buddha was quiet and thoughtful. He did not like the privileged life at his father’s palace. He found it dull. So he began to wander around the countryside, thinking deeply about the right way to live. BUDDHA SEES SUFFERING One day, around 533 bc, Buddha came across three men. The first was old, the second was sick, and the third was dead. Looking at them, Buddha saw that the world was full of suffering. Why was this, he wondered. Could it ever end? Then Buddha met a fourth man: a Hindu monk who lived by begging. The monk was calm and serene, so Buddha decided to try living like him. Buddha traveled through India, studying with Hindu teachers. But their religious ideas did not satisfy him. THE GREAT ENLIGHTENMENT Buddha also spent time alone, thinking and meditating. In 528 bc, he was sitting under a tree when he suddenly felt he understood suffering. It was caused by people themselves! If they lived better lives, it would end. Buddha said that everyone should try to be humble, generous, and merciful. People should give up violence and practice self-control. Buddha spent the rest of his life teaching and preaching. Many people followed him. Some became monks and nuns. Others used his ideas to guide their everyday lives. A new religion called Buddhism grew and spread to many parts of the world. Buddha died in Nepal at about the age of 80. Today, he is still honored by millions of people in many lands.

= Joan of Arc = = = She was a simple peasant girl who couldn’t read or write. Yet Joan of Arc united France and helped free her country from English rule. Today, she is remembered as one of the greatest heroines in history. VOICES FROM HEAVEN Joan of Arc was born in Domrémy, France, in 1412. Her parents were farmers. When Joan was 13, she started to hear strange, sweet voices. She thought the saints were calling to her from heaven. Joan believed the voices were telling her to save France. At that time, the English and French were fighting the Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453). In 1429, Joan went to see Charles, the future king of France. She was just 17 years old. JOAN VISITS THE KING Charles was feeling desperate. He was losing the war against England. Not all of France accepted Charles as king. Charles feared he might never be king of all France. So Charles listened to young Joan. Charles decided that Joan could help him. The heavenly voices she heard might inspire his soldiers. She might make the men think God was on their side. He gave Joan a coat of armor to wear and a big white banner to carry into battle. JOAN LEADS AN ARMY TO VICTORY Joan led her army to Orléans, a city the English were about to capture. Her forces defeated the English! For this victory, Joan earned the name Maid of Orléans. Soon afterwards, Charles was crowned king of France as Charles VII. Joan had a place of honor at his side. JOAN’S CAPTURE, TRIAL, AND DEATH The next year, Joan led another French army. But she was captured and handed over to the English. The English believed Joan was evil. They said the voices Joan heard and the soldier’s clothes she wore were signs of wickedness. They asked the Catholic Church to put her on trial as a witch! The church found Joan guilty and condemned her to death. But Joan begged forgiveness. She was sent to prison instead. In jail, Joan began wearing soldier’s clothes again. The English accused her of going back to her wicked ways. Joan was burned at the stake in 1431. SAINT JOAN In 1456, when the war was over, the Catholic Church declared that Joan had been innocent. In 1920, the church made Joan a saint.

= Christopher Columbs = = = Christopher Columbus tried to take a shortcut, and ended up somewhere he never intended to go. He discovered two continents that people in Europe didn’t even know existed. By crossing the Atlantic Ocean in 1492, Columbus opened contacts between lands and peoples that were unknown to each other. Columbus’s voyage to the Americas opened an exciting period in history. Animals, plants, and new ideas were exchanged between continents. But it also caused terrible tragedy. Millions of Native Americans died as Europeans rushed to take land and riches for themselves. MASTER SAILOR Christopher Columbus was born in 1451 in Genoa, Italy. He became a sailor at the age of 14. In 1476, he was shipwrecked off the coast of Portugal. Portugal was Europe’s top seafaring nation at that time. Columbus settled there. Columbus studied geography and navigation, the science of figuring out where things are on Earth’s surface. He became a master sailor. He met explorers who had sailed along the coast of Africa seeking an eastward sea route to the rich lands of Asia. Europeans called these lands “the Indies.” Europeans wanted to bring gold and other treasures from the Indies back to Europe. DARING DREAM Columbus began to think about a wonderful adventure, which he called the “Enterprise of the Indies.” He dreamed of reaching the Indies by sailing west! This was not a new idea, but no one had ever managed to make the voyage. Columbus thought the trip to the Indies west across the ocean would be much shorter than sailing around Africa. Columbus had high hopes, but no money. Who would pay for his expedition? He asked the king of Portugal, but the king refused. Columbus didn’t give up. He went to the rulers of Portugal’s neighbor, Spain. At first they also refused. Eventually, however, the Spanish king and queen agreed to provide three small ships—the //Pinta,// the //Niña,// and the //Santa María.// They also paid for crews and supplies for the voyage. HISTORIC VOYAGE Columbus sailed from Palos, Spain, on August 3, 1492. He stopped at the Canary Islands southwest of Spain, then headed west into unknown seas. He had no idea what lay ahead, but he had faith in his sailing skills and his bold idea//.// A swift current carried his ships along, and on October 12, the crew sighted the islands of the Bahamas. Columbus thought he had reached Asia. He called the islands the Indies. Columbus was greeted by the Arawak people who lived on the islands. They offered food, but had only a little gold. Columbus was disappointed not to find Asian treasures, but still felt sure he had reached Japan in Asia. He spent two months exploring, then headed home. One of his ships sank in a storm, but back in Spain he was hailed as a hero. The king and queen offered rich rewards and made him “Admiral of the Ocean Seas.” THREE FAILURES Columbus made three more voyages to America. None went well. He was a skillful sailor, but his greed and stubbornness made him a bad leader and created enemies. During his second voyage (1493-1496), Columbus claimed land for Spanish settlements. He fought against Caribbean peoples who lived on the land he claimed and forced them to work as slaves. On the third voyage (1498-1500), Columbus quarreled with Spanish settlers so violently that he was sent back to Europe as a prisoner in chains. On his fourth and final voyage (1502-1504), Columbus was marooned on an island for more than a year. He had to be rescued. He was very ill by the time he returned home to Spain. AN EXTRAORDINARY EXPLORER Columbus died in 1506. He quarreled with the king and queen right up until his death. He wanted authority over Spanish colonies and a larger share of the riches that were brought back from America. It was a sad end to an extraordinary career that still shapes our lives today. When Columbus crossed the Atlantic, he changed the world forever. Christopher Columbus In 1492, European explorer Christopher Columbus sailed west across the Atlantic Ocean hoping to reach Asia. Instead, he reached lands that were unknown to Europeans. Those lands were later named the Americas. After Columbus, many Europeans began to settle the Americas.Columbus Setting Sail in 1492 In 1492, explorer Christopher Columbus set sail to search for a quicker sea route to Asia. The Spanish king and queen, Ferdinand V and Isabella, paid for his ships, crew, and supplies. Here, Columbus says goodbye to Ferdinand and Isabella as he leaves on his journey.Columbus Setting Sail in 1492 In 1492, explorer Christopher Columbus set sail to search for a quicker sea route to Asia. The Spanish king and queen, Ferdinand V and Isabella, paid for his ships, crew, and supplies. Here, Columbus says goodbye to Ferdinand and Isabella as he leaves on his journey.

=Cleopatra=

Cleopatra was queen of Egypt about 2,000 years ago. She was intelligent, proud, strong-willed, and she was determined to keep her country free from invaders. When Egypt’s army was defeated by the Romans, Cleopatra decided she would rather die than be taken captive. According to legend, she held a poisonous snake to her body. The snake bit her, and she died. A CLEVER QUEEN IN TROUBLED TIMES Cleopatra was the daughter of the //pharaoh// (ruler) of Egypt. In 51 bc, when Cleopatra was 17 or 18, her father died. Cleopatra and her 12-year-old brother became the rulers of Egypt. Three years later, her brother declared that he should be the only ruler. He forced Cleopatra to leave Egypt. Cleopatra started putting together an army to fight her brother. But before war began, Roman general Julius Caesar arrived in Egypt. Cleopatra decided to ask Caesar for help. But how was she going to get back into Egypt, past her brother’s guards? She came up with a clever plan. Her servants rolled her into a carpet, and delivered it as a gift to Caesar. When the carpet was unrolled, out stepped Cleopatra. Cleopatra’s plan succeeded. Caesar helped Cleopatra defeat her brother. She was again Egypt’s queen. Caesar fell in love with Cleopatra. When Caesar returned to Rome, Cleopatra visited him there. Caesar promised that the Roman army would not invade Egypt. Then in 44 bc, Caesar was murdered, and Cleopatra returned to Egypt. ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA After her return, Cleopatra ruled Egypt without interference for several years. In 41 bc, however, Roman general Mark Antony demanded that Cleopatra meet with him. Cleopatra was in a difficult situation. She knew that the powerful Roman army could invade Egypt at any time. Cleopatra agreed to meet with Antony, but surprised him by arriving on a magnificent ship, seated on her royal throne. Antony, too, fell in love with the proud queen. In 35 bc, Antony married Cleopatra and they lived in Egypt. The next year, they announced that they were the rulers of the eastern part of the Roman Empire. This included Egypt and most of the Middle East. The Roman rulers were angered by this. Roman general Octavian declared war on Antony and Cleopatra. In 31 bc, Octavian won the war and took over Egypt. Both Antony and Cleopatra killed themselves. Cleopatra Cleopatra, shown in this stone carving, was the last Egyptian ruler of ancient Egypt. After her death in 30 bc, Egypt became part of the Roman Empire.

=Aztec Empire=

Hundreds of years ago, a towering temple stood at the center of what is now Mexico City. This Great Temple was a symbol of the power of the Aztec Empire—an empire that stretched across much of Mexico. WHO WERE THE AZTECS? The Aztec Empire was the last in a series of great Native American civilizations in Mexico. Before they became powerful, the Aztec people wandered from place to place and lived by hunting animals and gathering wild plants. They roamed a part of northern Mexico called Aztlán. The name Aztec comes from Aztlán. In the 1200s, the Aztecs moved to central Mexico. But they found that the best land there was already taken by other people. The only place left was two small islands in a shallow, salty lake called Lake Texcoco. So the Aztecs settled there and started farming. A DAZZLING CAPITAL In 1325, the Aztecs built their capital city, called Tenochtitlán, on those islands. To make more land for farming, they created artificial islands by filling the lake with soil. Eventually, Tenochtitlán became an impressive city of plazas, canals, palaces, pyramids, and houses. There was even a zoo. In the 1500s, perhaps 200,000 people lived in Tenochtitlán. It may have been the biggest city in the world at that time. BUILDING AN EMPIRE By the 1500s, the Aztecs were very powerful. But it was not always that way. Earlier, in the 1200s and 1300s, the Aztecs had little power and got little respect. They were forced to give a portion of their food and other valuable goods to their more powerful neighbors. But the Aztecs grew stronger. In the early 1400s, they formed an alliance, or friendship, with the people of two other cities in the area. The alliance soon defeated all their enemies in central Mexico. By the late 1400s, the alliance ruled most of lower Mexico. Tenochtitlán became the most important city in the growing empire. The Aztecs were now the masters of central Mexico. HOW DID THE AZTECS LIVE? Aztec society had several classes of people. At the top was an upper class of priests, warriors, and administrators. Below them were merchants, craft workers, farmers, and laborers. Only upper class people could own land. People in the other classes were given land to use, but they had to pay the empire for that privilege. No matter which class they were in, the Aztecs believed their rulers were like gods. Their two most powerful rulers were Montezuma I and Montezuma II. Religion played a very important part of Aztec life. The Aztecs believed in many gods. The most important was //Huitzilopochtli//, the god of war and the Sun. The Aztecs believed that Huitzilopochtli and other gods needed human blood to stay strong. So, they sacrificed thousands of people to the gods at the Great Temple. Most victims were prisoners of war. HOW DID THE AZTEC EMPIRE END? In 1519, the Aztecs and their ruler, Montezuma II, controlled a vast area. They probably thought their empire would last forever. But they were wrong. That year, a Spanish explorer named Hernán Cortés landed on the east coast of Mexico with about 600 men. Cortés was looking for gold and glory. People on the coast told him about the Aztecs and their fabulous capital. That was all Cortés had to hear. He set off to conquer the Aztecs. He recruited hundreds of people who were enemies of the Aztecs to help him. In August 1521, Cortés defeated the Aztecs. The Spaniards took the Aztecs’ gold and other treasures and leveled Tenochtitlán. They built a new city, Mexico City, on its ruins. Aztec Mask The Aztecs often used art for religious celebrations and rituals. This Aztec mask is made of wood and covered with turquoise.

=**Canada's Constitution Act in 1982**=

In 1982 the Canadian constitution was patriated, meaning it was brought further under Canadian control. The Constitution Act made it possible for Canadian lawmakers to amend the constitution without authorization from the United Kingdom. The Charter of Rights and Freedoms, the act’s first section, describes the fundamental individual and group rights of Canadian citizens, including freedom of religion, voting rights, and equality rights. The second section details the specific rights of Canada’s aboriginal peoples. The government of Québec refused to endorse the act, saying it failed to recognize the province’s distinct French Canadian culture. Constitution Act, 1982 PART 1 CANADIAN CHARTER OF RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS Whereas Canada is founded upon principles that recognize the supremacy of God and the rule of law://Guarantee of Rights and Freedoms//**1.** The //Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms// guarantees the rights and freedoms set out in it subject only to such reasonable limits prescribed by law as can be demonstrably justified in a free and democratic society.//Fundamental Freedoms//**2.** Everyone has the following fundamental freedoms:(//a//) freedom of conscience and religion;(//b//) freedom of thought, belief, opinion and expression, including freedom of the press and other media of communication;(//c//) freedom of peaceful assembly; and(//d//) freedom of association.//Democratic Rights//**3.** Every citizen of Canada has the right to vote in an election of members of the House of Commons or of a legislative assembly and to be qualified for membership therein.**4.** (1) No House of Commons and no legislative assembly shall continue for longer than five years from the date fixed for the return of the writs at a general election of its members.(2) In time of real or apprehended war, invasion or insurrection, a House of Commons may be continued by Parliament and a legislative assembly may be continued by the legislature beyond five years if such continuation is not opposed by the votes of more than one-third of the members of the House of Commons or the legislative assembly, as the case may be.**5.** There shall be a sitting of Parliament and of each legislature at least once every twelve months.//Mobility Rights//**6.** (1) Every citizen of Canada has the right to enter, remain in and leave Canada.(2) Every citizen of Canada and every person who has the status of a permanent resident of Canada has the right(//a//) to move to and take up residence in any province; and(//b//) to pursue the gaining of a livelihood in any province.(3) The rights specified in subsection (2) are subject to(//a//) any laws or practices of general application in force in a province other than those that discriminate among persons primarily on the basis of province of present or previous residence; and(//b//) any laws providing for reasonable residency requirements as a qualification for the receipt of publicly provided social services.(4) Subsections (2) and (3) do not preclude any law, program or activity that has as its object the amelioration in a province of conditions of individuals in that province who are socially or economically disadvantaged if the rate of employment in that province is below the rate of employment in Canada.//Legal Rights//**7.** Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of the person and the right not to be deprived thereof except in accordance with the principles of fundamental justice.**8.** Everyone has the right to be secure against unreasonable search or seizure.**9.** Everyone has the right not to be arbitrarily detained or imprisoned.**10.** Everyone has the right on arrest or detention(//a//) to be informed promptly of the reasons therefor;(//b//) to retain and instruct counsel without delay and to be informed of that right; and(//c//) to have the validity of the detention determined by way of //habeas corpus// and to be released if the detention is not lawful.**11.** Any person charged with an offence has the right(//a//) to be informed without unreasonable delay of the specific offence;(//b//) to be tried within a reasonable time;(//c//) not to be compelled to be a witness in proceedings against that person in respect of the offence;(//d//) to be presumed innocent until proven guilty according to law in a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal;(//e//) not to be denied reasonable bail without just cause;(//f//) except in the case of an offence under military law tried before a military tribunal, to the benefit of trial by jury where the maximum punishment for the offence is imprisonment for five years or a more severe punishment;(//g//) not to be found guilty on account of any act or omission unless, at the time of the act or omission, it constituted an offence under Canadian or international law or was criminal according to the general principles of law recognized by the community of nations;(//h//) if finally acquitted of the offence, not to be tried for it again and, if finally found guilty and punished for the offence, not to be tried or punished for it again; and(//i//) if found guilty of the offence and if the punishment for the offence has been varied between the time of commission and the time of sentencing, to the benefit of the lesser punishment.**12.** Everyone has the right not to be subjected to any cruel and unusual treatment or punishment.**13.** A witness who testifies in any proceedings has the right not to have any incriminating evidence so given used to incriminate that witness in any other proceedings, except in a prosecution for perjury or for the giving of contradictory evidence.**14.** A party or witness in any proceedings who does not understand or speak the language in which the proceedings are conducted or who is deaf has the right to the assistance of an interpreter.//Equality Rights//**15.** (1) Every individual is equal before and under the law and has the right to the equal protection and equal benefit of the law without discrimination and, in particular, without discrimination based on race, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, sex, age or mental or physical disability.(2) Subsection (1) does not preclude any law, program or activity that has as its object the amelioration of conditions of disadvantaged individuals or groups including those that are disadvantaged because of race, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, sex, age or mental or physical disability.**16.** (1) English and French are the official languages of Canada and have equality of status and equal rights and privileges as to their use in all institutions of the Parliament and government of Canada.(2) English and French are the official languages of New Brunswick and have equality of status and equal rights and privileges as to their use in all institutions of the legislature and government of New Brunswick.(3) Nothing in this Charter limits the authority of Parliament or a legislature to advance the equality of status or use of English and French.**16.1** (1) The English linguistic community and the French linguistic community in New Brunswick have equality of status and equal rights and privileges, including the right to distinct educational institutions and such distinct cultural institutions as are necessary for the preservation and promotion of those communities.(2) The role of the legislature and government of New Brunswick to preserve and promote the status, rights and privileges referred to in subsection (1) is affirmed.**17.** (1) Everyone has the right to use English or French in any debates and other proceedings of Parliament.(2) Everyone has the right to use English or French in any debates and other proceedings of the legislature of New Brunswick.**18.** (1) The statutes, records and journals of Parliament shall be printed and published in English and French and both language versions are equally authoritative.(2) The statutes, records and journals of the legislature of New Brunswick shall be printed and published in English and French and both language versions are equally authoritative.**19.** (1) Either English or French may be used by any person in, or in any pleading in or process issuing from, any court established by Parliament.(2) Either English or French may be used by any person in, or in any pleading in or process issuing from, any court of New Brunswick.**20.** (1) Any member of the public in Canada has the right to communicate with, and to receive available services from, any head or central office of an institution of the Parliament or government of Canada in English or French, and has the same right with respect to any other office of any such institution where(//a//) there is a significant demand for communications with and services from that office in such language; or(//b//) due to the nature of the office, it is reasonable that communications with and services from that office be available in both English and French.(2) Any member of the public in New Brunswick has the right to communicate with, and to receive available services from, any office of an institution of the legislature or government of New Brunswick in English or French.**21.** Nothing in sections 16 to 20 abrogates or derogates from any right, privilege or obligation with respect to the English and French languages, or either of them, that exists or is continued by virtue of any other provision of the Constitution of Canada.**22.** Nothing in sections 16 to 20 abrogates or derogates from any legal or customary right or privilege acquired or enjoyed either before or after the coming into force of this Charter with respect to any language that is not English or French.//Minority Language Educational Rights//**23.** (1) Citizens of Canada(//a//) whose first language learned and still understood is that of the English or French linguistic minority population of the province in which they reside, or(//b//) who have received their primary school instruction in Canada in English or French and reside in a province where the language in which they received that instruction is the language of the English or French linguistic minority population of the province,have the right to have their children receive primary and secondary school instruction in that language in that province.(2) Citizens of Canada of whom any child has received or is receiving primary or secondary school instruction in English or French in Canada, have the right to have all their children receive primary and secondary school instruction in the same language.(3) The right of citizens of Canada under subsections (1) and (2) to have their children receive primary and secondary school instruction in the language of the English or French linguistic minority population of a province(//a//) applies wherever in the province the number of children of citizens who have such a right is sufficient to warrant the provision to them out of public funds of minority language instruction; and(//b//) includes, where the number of those children so warrants, the right to have them receive that instruction in minority language educational facilities provided out of public funds.//Enforcement//**24.** (1) Anyone whose rights or freedoms, as guaranteed by this Charter, have been infringed or denied may apply to a court of competent jurisdiction to obtain such remedy as the court considers appropriate and just in the circumstances.(2) Where, in proceedings under subsection (1), a court concludes that evidence was obtained in a manner that infringed or denied any rights or freedoms guaranteed by this Charter, the evidence shall be excluded if it is established that, having regard to all the circumstances, the admission of it in the proceedings would bring the administration of justice into disrepute.//General//**25.** The guarantee in this Charter of certain rights and freedoms shall not be construed so as to abrogate or derogate from any aboriginal, treaty or other rights or freedoms that pertain to the aboriginal peoples of Canada including(//a//) any rights or freedoms that have been recognized by the Royal Proclamation of October 7, 1763; and(//b//) any rights or freedoms that now exist by way of land claims agreements or may be so acquired.**26.** The guarantee in this Charter of certain rights and freedoms shall not be construed as denying the existence of any other rights or freedoms that exist in Canada.**27.** This Charter shall be interpreted in a manner consistent with the preservation and enhancement of the multicultural heritage of Canadians.**28.** Notwithstanding anything in this Charter, the rights and freedoms referred to in it are guaranteed equally to male and female persons.**29.** Nothing in this Charter abrogates or derogates from any rights or privileges guaranteed by or under the Constitution of Canada in respect of denominational, separate or dissentient schools.**30.** A reference in this Charter to a Province or to the legislative assembly or legislature of a province shall be deemed to include a reference to the Yukon Territory and the Northwest Territories, or to the appropriate legislative authority thereof, as the case may be.**31.** Nothing in this Charter extends the legislative powers of any body or authority.//Application of Charter//**32.** (1) This Charter applies(//a//) to the Parliament and government of Canada in respect of all matters within the authority of Parliament including all matters relating to the Yukon Territory and Northwest Territories; and(//b//) to the legislature and government of each province in respect of all matters within the authority of the legislature of each province.(2) Notwithstanding subsection (1), section 15 shall not have effect until three years after this section comes into force.**33.** (1) Parliament or the legislature of a province may expressly declare in an Act of Parliament or of the legislature, as the case may be, that the Act or a provision thereof shall operate notwithstanding a provision included in section 2 or sections 7 to 15 of this Charter.(2) An Act or a provision of an Act in respect of which a declaration made under this section is in effect shall have such operation as it would have but for the provision of this Charter referred to in the declaration.(3) A declaration made under subsection (1) shall cease to have effect five years after it comes into force or on such earlier date as may be specified in the declaration.(4) Parliament or the legislature of a province may re-enact a declaration made under subsection (1).(5) Subsection (3) applies in respect of a re-enactment made under subsection (4).//Citation//**34.** This Part may be cited as the //Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.// PART II RIGHTS OF THE ABORIGINAL PEOPLES OF CANADA PART III EQUALIZATION AND REGIONAL DISPARITIES
 * 35.** (1) The existing aboriginal and treaty rights of the aboriginal peoples of Canada are hereby recognized and affirmed.(2) In this Act, "aboriginal peoples of Canada" includes the Indian, Inuit and Métis peoples of Canada.(3) For greater certainty, in subsection (1) "treaty rights" includes rights that now exist by way of land claims agreements or may be so acquired.(4) Notwithstanding any other provision of this Act, the aboriginal and treaty rights referred to in subsection (1) are guaranteed equally to male and female persons.**35.1** The government of Canada and the provincial governments are committed to the principle that, before any amendment is made to Class 24 of section 91 of the "//Constitution Act, 1867//", to section 25 of this Act or to this Part,(//a//) a constitutional conference that includes in its agenda an item relating to the proposed amendment, composed of the Prime Minister of Canada and the first ministers of the provinces, will be convened by the Prime Minister of Canada; and(//b//) the Prime Minister of Canada will invite representatives of the aboriginal peoples of Canada to participate in the discussions on that item.
 * 36.** (1) Without altering the legislative authority of Parliament or of the provincial legislatures, or the rights of any of them with respect to the exercise of their legislative authority, Parliament and the legislatures, together with the government of Canada and the provincial governments, are committed to(//a//) promoting equal opportunities for the well-being of Canadians;(//b//) furthering economic development to reduce disparity in opportunities; and(//c//) providing essential public services of reasonable quality to all Canadians.(2) Parliament and the government of Canada are committed to the principle of making equalization payments to ensure that provincial governments have sufficient revenues to provide reasonably comparable levels of public services at reasonably comparable levels of taxation.

=**Charter of the United Nations**= In 1945 representatives from 50 nations met in San Francisco, California, and drafted the Charter of the United Nations (UN). The so-called San Francisco Conference recognized the failure of the League of Nations, the UN’s predecessor, to contain the conflicts that led to World War II (1939-1945). The conference sought to create an organization that could represent all of the world’s nations and deal effectively with a broad range of issues. The charter provides the framework for the UN, which continues to work toward its primary goal of maintaining world peace. Charter of the United Nations WE THE PEOPLES OF THE UNITED NATIONS DETERMINEDto save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind, andto reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and women and of nations large and small, andto establish conditions under which justice and respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other sources of international law can be maintained, andto promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom,AND FOR THESE ENDSto practice tolerance and live together in peace with one another as good neighbors, andto unite our strength to maintain international peace and security, andto ensure by the acceptance of principles and the institution of methods, that armed force shall not be used, save in the common interest, andto employ international machinery for the promotion of the economic and social advancement of all peoples,HAVE RESOLVED TO COMBINE OUR EFFORTS TO ACCOMPLISH THESE AIMSAccordingly, our respective Governments, through representatives assembled in the city of San Francisco, who have exhibited their full powers found to be in good and due form, have agreed to the present Charter of the United Nations and do hereby establish an international organization to be known as the United Nations. PURPOSES AND PRINCIPLES //Article 1// The Purposes of the United Nations are:1. To maintain international peace and security, and to that end: to take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to the peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches of the peace, and to bring about by peaceful means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and international law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations which might lead to a breach of the peace;2. To develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples, and to take other appropriate measures to strengthen universal peace;3. To achieve international cooperation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character, and in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion; and4. To be a center for harmonizing the actions of nations in the attainment of these common ends. //Article 2// The Organization and its Members, in pursuit of the Purposes stated in Article 1, shall act in accordance with the following Principles.1. The Organization is based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all its Members.2. All Members, in order to ensure to all of them the rights and benefits resulting from membership, shall fulfill in good faith the obligations assumed by them in accordance with the present Charter.3. All Members shall settle their international disputes by peaceful means in such a manner that international peace and security, and justice, are not endangered.4. All Members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Purposes of the United Nations.5. All Members shall give the United Nations every assistance in any action it takes in accordance with the present Charter, and shall refrain from giving assistance to any state against which the United Nations is taking preventive or enforcement action.6. The Organization shall ensure that states which are not Members of the United Nations act in accordance with these Principles so far as may be necessary for the maintenance of international peace and security.7. Nothing contained in the present Charter shall authorize the United Nations to intervene in matters which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any state or shall require the Members to submit such matters to settlement under the present Charter; but this principle shall not prejudice the application of enforcement measures under Chapter VII. MEMBERSHIP //Article 3// The original Members of the United Nations shall be the states which, having participated in the United Nations Conference on International Organization at San Francisco, or having previously signed the Declaration by United Nations of January 1, 1942, sign the present Charter and ratify it in accordance with Article 110. //Article 4// 1. Membership in the United Nations is open to all other peace-loving states which accept the obligations contained in the present Charter and, in the judgment of the Organization, are able and willing to carry out these obligations.2. The admission of any such state to membership in the United Nations will be effected by a decision of the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council. //Article 5// A member of the United Nations against which preventive or enforcement action has been taken by the Security Council may be suspended from the exercise of the rights and privileges of membership by the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council. The exercise of these rights and privileges may be restored by the Security Council. //Article 6// A Member of the United Nations which has persistently violated the Principles contained in the present Charter may be expelled from the Organization by the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council. ORGANS //Article 7// 1. There are established as the principal organs of the United Nations: a General Assembly, a Security Council, an Economic and Social Council, a Trusteeship Council, an International Court of Justice, and a Secretariat.2. Such subsidiary organs as may be found necessary may be established in accordance with the present Charter. //Article 8// The United Nations shall place no restrictions on the eligibility of men and women to participate in any capacity and under conditions of equality in its principal and subsidiary organs. THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY //Article 9// Composition1. The General Assembly shall consist of all the Members of the United Nations.2. Each member shall have not more than five representatives in the General Assembly.Functions and Powers //Article 10// The General Assembly may discuss any questions or any matters within the scope of the present Charter or relating to the powers and functions of any organs provided for in the present Charter, and, except as provided in Article 12, may make recommendations to the Members of the United Nations or to the Security Council or to both on any such questions or matters. //Article 11// 1. The General Assembly may consider the general principles of cooperation in the maintenance of international peace and security, including the principles governing disarmament and the regulation of armaments, and may make recommendations with regard to such principles to the Members or to the Security Council or to both.2. The General Assembly may discuss any questions relating to the maintenance of international peace and security brought before it by any Member of the United Nations, or by the Security Council, or by a state which is not a Member of the United Nations in accordance with Article 35, paragraph 2, and, except as provided in Article 12, may make recommendations with regard to any such questions to the state or states concerned or to the Security Council or to both. Any such question on which action is necessary shall be referred to the Security Council by the General Assembly either before or after discussion.3. The General Assembly may call the attention of the Security Council to situations which are likely to endanger international peace and security.4. The powers of the General Assembly set forth in this Article shall not limit the general scope of Article 10. //Article 12// 1. While the Security Council is exercising in respect of any dispute or situation the functions assigned to it in the present Charter, the General Assembly shall not make any recommendation with regard to that dispute or situation unless the Security Council so requests.2. The Secretary-General, with the consent of the Security Council, shall notify the General Assembly at each session of any matters relative to the maintenance of international peace and security which are being dealt with by the Security Council and shall similarly notify the General Assembly, or the Members of the United Nations if the General Assembly is not in session, immediately the Security Council ceases to deal with such matters. //Article 13// 1. The General Assembly shall initiate studies and make recommendations for the purpose of:a. promoting international cooperation in the political field and encouraging the progressive development of international law and its codification;b. promoting international cooperation in the economic, social, cultural, educational, and health fields, and assisting in the realization of human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion.2. The further responsibilities, functions and powers of the General Assembly with respect to matters mentioned in paragraph 1(b) above are set forth in Chapters IX and X. //Article 14// Subject to the provisions of Article 12, the General Assembly may recommend measures for the peaceful adjustment of any situation, regardless of origin, which it deems likely to impair the general welfare or friendly relations among nations, including situations resulting from a violation of the provisions of the present Charter setting forth the Purposes and Principles of the United Nations. //Article 15// 1. The General Assembly shall receive and consider annual and special reports from the Security Council; these reports shall include an account of the measures that the Security Council has decided upon or taken to maintain international peace and security.2. The General Assembly shall receive and consider reports from the other organs of the United Nations. //Article 16// The General Assembly shall perform such functions with respect to the international trusteeship system as are assigned to it under Chapters XII and XIII, including the approval of the trusteeship agreements for areas not designated as strategic. //Article 17// 1. The General Assembly shall consider and approve the budget of the Organization.2. The expenses of the Organization shall be borne by the Members as apportioned by the General Assembly.3. The General Assembly shall consider and approve any financial and budgetary arrangements with specialized agencies referred to in Article 57 and shall examine the administrative budgets of such specialized agencies with a view to making recommendations to the agencies concerned.Voting //Article 18// 1. Each member of the General Assembly shall have one vote.2. Decisions of the General Assembly on important questions shall be made by a two-thirds majority of the members present and voting. These questions shall include: recommendations with respect to the maintenance of international peace and security, the election of the non-permanent members of the Security Council, the election of the members of the Economic and Social Council, the election of members of the Trusteeship Council in accordance with paragraph 1(c) of Article 86, the admission of new Members to the United Nations, the suspension of the rights and privileges of membership, the expulsion of Members, questions relating to the operation of the trusteeship system, and budgetary questions.3. Decisions on other questions, Composition including the determination of additional categories of questions to be decided by a two-thirds majority, shall be made by a majority of the members present and voting. //Article 19// A Member of the United Nations which is in arrears in the payment of its financial contributions to the Organization shall have no vote in the General Assembly if the amount of its arrears equals or exceeds the amount of the contributions due from it for the preceding two full years. The General Assembly may, nevertheless, permit such a Member to vote if it is satisfied that the failure to pay is due to conditions beyond the control of the Member.Procedure //Article 20// The General Assembly shall meet in regular annual sessions and in such special sessions as occasion may require. Special sessions shall be convoked by the Secretary-General at the request of the Security Council or of a majority of the Members of the United Nations. //Article 21// The General Assembly shall adopt its own rules of procedure. It shall elect its President for each session. //Article 22// The General Assembly may establish such subsidiary organs as it deems necessary for the performance of its functions. THE SECURITY COUNCIL //Article 23// 1. The Security Council shall consist of fifteen Members of the United Nations. The Republic of China, France, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the United States of America shall be permanent members of the Security Council. The General Assembly shall elect ten other Members of the United Nations to be non-permanent members of the Security Council, due regard being specially paid, in the first instance to the contribution of Members of the United Nations to the maintenance of international peace and security and to the other purposes of the Organization, and also to equitable geographical distribution.The non-permanent members of the Security Council shall be elected for a term of two years. In the first election of the non-permanent members after the increase of the membership of the Security Council from eleven to fifteen, two of the four additional members shall be chosen for a term of one year. A retiring member shall not be eligible for immediate re-election.Each member of the Security Council shall have one representative.Functions and Powers //Article 24// 1. In order to ensure prompt and effective action by the United Nations, its Members confer on the Security Council primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security, and agree that in carrying out its duties under this responsibility the Security Council acts on their behalf.2. In discharging these duties the Security Council shall act in accordance with the Purposes and Principles of the United Nations. The specific powers granted to the Security Council for the discharge of these duties are laid down in Chapters VI, VII, VIII, and XII.3. The Security Council shall submit annual and, when necessary, special reports to the General Assembly for its consideration. //Article 25// The Members of the United Nations agree to accept and carry out the decisions of the Security Council in accordance with the present Charter. //Article 26// In order to promote the establishment and maintenance of international peace and security with the least diversion for armaments of the world's human and economic resources, the Security Council shall be responsible for formulating, with the assistance of the Military Staff Committee referred to in Article 47, plans to be submitted to the Members of the United Nations for the establishment of a system for the regulation of armaments.Voting //Article 27// 1. Each member of the Security Council shall have one vote.2. Decisions of the Security Council on procedural matters shall be made by an affirmative vote of nine members.3. Decisions of the Security Council on all other matters shall be made by an affirmative vote of nine members including the concurring votes of the permanent members; provided that, in decisions under Chapter VI, and under paragraph 3 of Article 52, a party to a dispute shall abstain from voting.Procedure //Article 28// 1. The Security Council shall be so organized as to be able to function continuously. Each member of the Security Council shall for this purpose be represented at all times at the seat of the Organization.2. The Security Council shall hold periodic meetings at which each of its members may, if it so desires, be represented by a member of the government or by some other specially designated representative.3. The Security Council may hold meetings at such places other than the seat of the Organization as in its judgment will best facilitate its work. //Article 29// The Security Council may establish such subsidiary organs as it deems necessary for the performance of its functions. //Article 30// The Security Council shall adopt its own rules of procedure, including the method of selecting its President. //Article 31// Any Member of the United Nations which is not a member of the Security Council may participate, without vote, in the discussion of any question brought before the Security Council whenever the latter considers that the interests of that Member are specially affected. //Article 32// Any Member of the United Nations which is not a member of the Security Council or any state which is not a Member of the United Nations, if it is a party to a dispute under consideration by the Security Council, shall be invited to participate, without vote, in the discussion relating to the dispute. The Security Council shall lay down such conditions as it deems just for the participation of a state which is not a Member of the United Nations. PACIFIC SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTES //Article 33// 1. The parties to any dispute, the continuance of which is likely to endanger the maintenance of international peace and security, shall, first of all, seek a solution by negotiation, enquiry, mediation, conciliation, arbitration, judicial settlement, resort to regional agencies or arrangements, or other peaceful means of their own choice.2. The Security Council shall, when it deems necessary, call upon the parties to settle their dispute by such means. //Article 34// The Security Council may investigate any dispute, or any situation which might lead to international friction or give rise to a dispute, in order to determine whether the continuance of the dispute or situation is likely to endanger the maintenance of international peace and security. //Article 35// 1. Any Member of the United Nations may bring any dispute, or any situation of the nature referred to in Article 34, to the attention of the Security Council or of the General Assembly.2. A state which is not a Member of the United Nations may bring to the attention of the Security Council or of the General Assembly any dispute to which it is a party if it accepts in advance, for the purposes of the dispute, the obligations of pacific settlement provided in the present Charter.3. The proceedings of the General Assembly in respect of matters brought to its attention under this Article will be subject to the provisions of Articles 11 and 12. //Article 36// 1. The Security Council may, at any stage of a dispute of the nature referred to in Article 33 or of a situation of like nature, recommend appropriate procedures or methods of adjustment.2. The Security Council should take into consideration any procedures for the settlement of the dispute which have already been adopted by the parties.3. In making recommendations under this Article the Security Council should also take into consideration that legal disputes should as a general rule be referred by the parties to the International Court of Justice in accordance with the provisions of the Statute of the Court. //Article 37// 1. Should the parties to a dispute of the nature referred to in Article 33 fail to settle it by the means indicated in that Article, they shall refer it to the Security Council.2. If the Security Council deems that the continuance of the dispute is in fact likely to endanger the maintenance of international peace and security, it shall decide whether to take action under Article 36 or to recommend such terms of settlement as it may consider appropriate. //Article 38// Without prejudice to the provisions of Articles 33 to 37, the Security Council may, if all the parties to any dispute so request, make recommendations to the parties with a view to a pacific settlement of the dispute. ACTION WITH RESPECT TO THREATS TO THE PEACE, BREACHES OF THE PEACE, AND ACTS OF AGGRESSION //Article 39// The Security Council shall determine the existence of any threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression and shall make recommendations, or decide what measures shall be taken in accordance with Articles 41 and 42, to maintain or restore international peace and security. //Article 40// In order to prevent an aggravation of the situation, the Security Council may, before making the recommendations or deciding upon the measures provided for in Article 39, call upon the parties concerned to comply with such provisional measures as it deems necessary or desirable. Such provisional measures shall be without prejudice to the rights, claims, or position of the parties concerned. The Security Council shall duly take account of failure to comply with such provisional measures. //Article 41// The Security Council may decide what measures not involving the use of armed force are to be employed to give effect to its decisions, and it may call upon the Members of the United Nations to apply such measures. These may include complete or partial interruption of economic relations and of rail, sea, air, postal, telegraphic, radio, and other means of communication, and the severance of diplomatic relations. //Article 42// Should the Security Council consider that measures provided for in Article 41 would be inadequate or have proved to be inadequate, it may take such action by air, sea, or land forces as may be necessary to maintain or restore international peace and security. Such action may include demonstrations, blockade, and other operations by air, sea, or land forces of Members of the United Nations. //Article 43// 1. All Members of the United Nations, in order to contribute to the maintenance of international peace and security, undertake to make available to the Security Council, on its call and in accordance with a special agreement or agreements, armed forces, assistance, and facilities, including rights of passage, necessary for the purpose of maintaining international peace and security.2. Such agreement or agreements shall govern the numbers and types of forces, their degree of readiness and general location, and the nature of the facilities and assistance to be provided.3. The agreement or agreements shall be negotiated as soon as possible on the initiative of the Security Council. They shall be concluded between the Security Council and Members or between the Security Council and groups of Members and shall be subject to ratification by the signatory states in accordance with their respective constitutional processes. //Article 44// When the Security Council has decided to use force it shall, before calling upon a Member not represented on it to provide armed forces in fulfillment of the obligations assumed under Article 43, invite that Member, if the Member so desires, to participate in the decisions of the Security Council concerning the employment of contingents of that Member's armed forces. //Article 45// In order to enable the United Nations to take urgent military measures Members shall hold immediately available national air-force contingents for combined international enforcement action. The strength and degree of readiness of these contingents and plans for their combined action shall be determined, within the limits laid down in the special agreement or agreements referred to in Article 43, by the Security Council with the assistance of the Military Staff Committee. //Article 46// Plans for the application of armed force shall be made by the Security Council with the assistance of the Military Staff Committee. //Article 47// 1. There shall be established a Military Staff Committee to advise and assist the Security Council on all questions relating to the Security Council's military requirements for the maintenance of international peace and security, the employment and command of forces placed at its disposal, the regulation of armaments, and possible disarmament.2. The Military Staff Committee shall consist of the Chiefs of Staff of the permanent members of the Security Council or their representatives. Any Member of the United Nations not permanently represented on the Committee shall be invited by the Committee to be associated with it when the efficient discharge of the Committee's responsibilities requires the participation of that Member in its work.3. The Military Staff Committee shall be responsible under the Security Council for the strategic direction of any armed forces placed at the disposal of the Security Council. Questions relating to the command of such forces shall be worked out subsequently.4. The Military Staff Committee, with the authorization of the Security Council and after consultation with appropriate regional agencies, may establish regional subcommittees. //Article 48// 1. The action required to carry out the decisions of the Security Council for the maintenance of international peace and security shall be taken by all the Members of the United Nations or by some of them, as the Security Council may determine.2. Such decisions shall be carried out by the Members of the United Nations directly and through their action in the appropriate international agencies of which they are members. //Article 49// The Members of the United Nations shall join in affording mutual assistance in carrying out the measures decided upon by the Security Council. //Article 50// If preventive or enforcement measures against any state are taken by the Security Council, any other state, whether a Member of the United Nations or not, which finds itself confronted with special economic problems arising from the carrying out of those measures shall have the right to consult the Security Council with regard to a solution of those problems. //Article 51// Nothing in the present Charter shall impair the inherent right of individual or collective self-defense if an armed attack occurs against a Member of the United Nations, until the Security Council has taken measures necessary to maintain international peace and security. Measures taken by Members in the exercise of this right of self-defense shall be immediately reported to the Security Council and shall not in any way affect the authority and responsibility of the Security Council under the present Charter to take at any time such action as it deems necessary in order to maintain or restore international peace and security. REGIONAL ARRANGEMENTS //Article 52// 1. Nothing in the present Charter precludes the existence of regional arrangements or agencies for dealing with such matters relating to the maintenance of international peace and security as are appropriate for regional action, provided that such arrangements or agencies and their activities are consistent with the Purposes and Principles of the United Nations.2. The Members of the United Nations entering into such arrangements or constituting such agencies shall make every effort to achieve pacific settlement of local disputes through such regional arrangements or by such regional agencies before referring them to the Security Council.3. The Security Council shall encourage the development of pacific settlement of local disputes through such regional arrangements or by such regional agencies either on the initiative of the states concerned or by reference from the Security Council.4. This Article in no way impairs the application of Articles 34 and 35. //Article 53// 1. The Security Council shall, where appropriate, utilize such regional arrangements or agencies for enforcement action under its authority. But no enforcement action shall be taken under regional arrangements or by regional agencies without the authorization of the Security Council, with the exception of measures against any enemy state, as defined in paragraph 2 of this Article, provided for pursuant to Article 107 or in regional arrangements directed against renewal of aggressive policy on the part of any such state, until such time as the Organization may, on request of the Governments concerned, be charged with the responsibility for preventing further aggression by such a state.2. The term enemy state as used in paragraph 1 of this Article applies to any state which during the Second World War has been an enemy of any signatory of the present Charter. //Article 54// The Security Council shall at all times be kept fully informed of activities undertaken or in contemplation under regional arrangements or by regional agencies for the maintenance of international peace and security. INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL CO-OPERATION //Article 55// With a view to the creation of conditions of stability and well-being which are necessary for peaceful and friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples, the United Nations shall promote:a. higher standards of living, full employment, and conditions of economic and social progress and development;b. solutions of international economic, social, health, and related problems; and international cultural and educational co-operation; andc. universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion. //Article 56// All Members pledge themselves to take joint and separate action in cooperation with the Organization for the achievement of the purposes set forth in Article 55. //Article 57// 1. The various specialized agencies, established by intergovernmental agreement and having wide international responsibilities, as defined in their basic instruments, in economic, social, cultural, educational, health, and related fields, shall be brought into relationship with the United Nations in accordance with the provisions of Article 63.2. Such agencies thus brought into relationship with the United Nations are hereinafter referred to as specialized agencies. //Article 58// The Organization shall make recommendations for the coordination of the policies and activities of the specialized agencies. //Article 59// The Organization shall, where appropriate, initiate negotiations among the states concerned for the creation of any new specialized agencies required for the accomplishment of the purposes set forth in Article 55. //Article 60// Responsibility for the discharge of the functions of the Organization set forth in this Chapter shall be vested in the General Assembly and, under the authority of the General Assembly, in the Economic and Social Council, which shall have for this purpose the powers set forth in Chapter X. THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCILComposition //Article 61// 1. The Economic and Social Council shall consist of fifty-four Members of the United Nations elected by the General Assembly.2. Subject to the provisions of paragraph 3, eighteen members of the Economic and Social Council shall be elected each year for a term of three years. A retiring member shall be eligible for immediate re-election.3. At the first election after the increase in the membership of the Economic and Social Council from twenty-seven to fifty-four members, in addition to the members elected in place of the nine members whose term of office expires at the end of that year, twenty-seven additional members shall be elected. Of these twenty-seven additional members, the term of office of nine members so elected shall expire at the end of one year, and of nine other members at the end of two years, in accordance with arrangements made by the General Assembly.4. Each member of the Economic and Social Council shall have one representative.Functions and Powers //Article 62// 1. The Economic and Social Council may make or initiate studies and reports with respect to international economic, social, cultural, educational, health, and related matters and may make recommendations with respect to any such matters to the General Assembly, to the Members of the United Nations, and to the specialized agencies concerned.2. It may make recommendations for the purpose of promoting respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all.3. It may prepare draft conventions for submission to the General Assembly, with respect to matters falling within its competence.4. It may call, in accordance with the rules prescribed by the United Nations, international conferences on matters falling within its competence. //Article 63// 1. The Economic and Social Council may enter into agreements with any of the agencies referred to in Article 57, defining the terms on which the agency concerned shall be brought into relationship with the United Nations. Such agreements shall be subject to approval by the General Assembly.2. It may coordinate the activities of the specialized agencies through consultation with and recommendations to such agencies and through recommendations to the General Assembly and to the Members of the United Nations. //Article 64// 1. The Economic and Social Council may take appropriate steps to obtain regular reports from the specialized agencies. It may make arrangements with the Members of the United Nations and with the specialized agencies to obtain reports on the steps taken to give effect to its own recommendations and to recommendations on matters falling within its competence made by the General Assembly.2. It may communicate its observations on these reports to the General Assembly. //Article 65// The Economic and Social Council may furnish information to the Security Council and shall assist the Security Council upon its request. //Article 66// 1. The Economic and Social Council shall perform such functions as fall within its competence in connection with the carrying out of the recommendations of the General Assembly.2. It may, with the approval of the General Assembly, perform services at the request of Members of the United Nations and at the request of specialized agencies.3. It shall perform such other functions as are specified elsewhere in the present Charter or as may be assigned to it by the General Assembly. //Article 67// 1. Each member of the Economic and Social Council shall have one vote.2. Decisions of the Economic and Social Council shall be made by a majority of the members present and voting.Procedure //Article 68// The Economic and Social Council shall set up commissions in economic and social fields and for the promotion of human rights, and such other commissions as may be required for the performance of its functions. //Article 69// The Economic and Social Council shall invite any Member of the United Nations to participate, without vote, in its deliberations on any matter of particular concern to that Member. //Article 70// The Economic and Social Council may make arrangements for representatives of the specialized agencies to participate, without vote, in its deliberations and in those of the commissions established by it, and for its representatives to participate in the deliberations of the specialized agencies. //Article 71// The Economic and Social Council may make suitable arrangements for consultation with non-governmental organizations which are concerned with matters within its competence. Such arrangements may be made with international organizations and, where appropriate, with national organizations after consultation with the Member of the United Nations concerned. //Article 72// 1. The Economic and Social Council shall adopt its own rules of procedure, including the method of selecting its President.2. The Economic and Social Council shall meet as required in accordance with its rules, which shall include provision for the convening of meetings on the request of a majority of its members. DECLARATION REGARDING NON-SELF-GOVERNING TERRITORIES //Article 73// Members of the United Nations which have or assume responsibilities for the administration of territories whose peoples have not yet attained a full measure of self-government recognize the principle that the interests of the inhabitants of these territories are paramount, and accept as a sacred trust the obligation to promote to the utmost, within the system of international peace and security established by the present Charter, the well-being of the inhabitants of these territories, and, to this end:a. to ensure, with due respect for the culture of the peoples concerned, their political, economic, social, and educational advancement, their just treatment, and their protection against abuses;b. to develop self-government, to take due account of the political aspirations of the peoples, and to assist them in the progressive development of their free political institutions, according to the particular circumstances of each territory and its peoples and their varying stages of advancement;c. to further international peace and security;d. to promote constructive measures of development, to encourage research, and to cooperate with one another and, when and where appropriate, with specialized international bodies with a view to the practical achievement of the social, economic, and scientific purposes set forth in this Article; ande. to transmit regularly to the Secretary-General for information purposes, subject to such limitation as security and constitutional considerations may require, statistical and other information of a technical nature relating to economic, social, and educational conditions in the territories for which they are respectively responsible other than those territories to which Chapter XII and XIII apply. //Article 74// Members of the United Nations also agree that their policy in respect of the territories to which this Chapter applies, no less than in respect of their metropolitan areas, must be based on the general principle of good-neighborliness, due account being taken of the interests and well-being of the rest of the world, in social, economic, and commercial matters. INTERNATIONAL TRUSTEESHIP SYSTEM //Article 75// The United Nations shall establish under its authority an international trusteeship system for the administration and supervision of such territories as may be placed thereunder by subsequent individual agreements. These territories are hereinafter referred to as trust territories. //Article 76// The basic objectives of the trusteeship system, in accordance with the Purposes of the United Nations laid down in Article 1 of the present Charter, shall be:a. to further international peace and security;b. to promote the political, economic, social, and educational advancement of the inhabitants of the trust territories, and their progressive development towards self-government or independence as may be appropriate to the particular circumstances of each territory and its peoples and the freely expressed wishes of the peoples concerned, and as may be provided by the terms of each trusteeship agreement;c. to encourage respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion, and to encourage recognition of the interdependence of the peoples of the world; andd. to ensure equal treatment in social, economic, and commercial matters for all Members of the United Nations and their nationals and also equal treatment for the latter in the administration of justice without prejudice to the attainment of the foregoing objectives and subject to the provisions of Article 80. //Article 77// 1. The trusteeship system shall apply to such territories in the following categories as may be placed thereunder by means of trusteeship agreements:a. territories now held under mandate;b. territories which may be detached from enemy states as a result of the Second World War, andc. territories voluntarily placed under the system by states responsible for their administration.2. It will be a matter for subsequent agreement as to which territories in the foregoing categories will be brought under the trusteeship system and upon what terms. //Article 78// The trusteeship system shall not apply to territories which have become Members of the United Nations, relationship among which shall be based on respect for the principle of sovereign equality. //Article 79// The terms of trusteeship for each territory to be placed under the trusteeship system, including any alteration or amendment, shall be agreed upon by the states directly concerned, including the mandatory power in the case of territories held under mandate by a Member of the United Nations, and shall be approved as provided for in Articles 83 and 85. //Article 80// 1. Except as may be agreed upon in individual trusteeship agreements, made under Articles 77, 79, and 81, placing each territory under the trusteeship system, and until such agreements have been concluded, nothing in this Chapter shall be construed in or of itself to alter in any manner the rights whatsoever of any states or any peoples or the terms of existing international instruments to which Members of the United Nations may respectively be parties.2. Paragraph 1 of this Article shall not be interpreted as giving grounds for delay or postponement of the negotiation and conclusion of agreements for placing mandated and other territories under the trusteeship system as provided for in Article 77. //Article 81// The trusteeship agreement shall in each case include the terms under which the trust territory will be administered and designate the authority which will exercise the administration of the trust territory. Such authority, hereinafter called the administering authority, may be one or more states or the Organization itself. //Article 82// There may be designated, in any trusteeship agreement, a strategic area or areas which may include part or all of the trust territory to which the agreement applies, without prejudice to any special agreement or agreements made under Article 43. //Article 83// 1. All functions of the United Nations relating to strategic areas, including the approval of the terms of the trusteeship agreements and of their alteration or amendment, shall be exercised by the Security Council.2. The basic objectives set forth in Article 76 shall be applicable to the people of each strategic area.3. The Security Council shall, subject to the provisions of the trusteeship agreements and without prejudice to security considerations, avail itself of the assistance of the Trusteeship Council to perform those functions of the United Nations under the trusteeship system relating to political, economic, social, and educational matters in the strategic areas. //Article 84// It shall be the duty of the administering authority to ensure that the trust territory shall play its part in the maintenance of international peace and security. To this end the administering authority may make use of volunteer forces, facilities, and assistance from the trust territory in carrying out the obligations towards the Security Council undertaken in this regard by the administering authority, as well as for local defense and the maintenance of law and order within the trust territory. //Article 85// 1. The functions of the United Nations with regard to trusteeship agreements for all areas not designated as strategic, including the approval of the terms of the trusteeship agreements and of their alteration or amendment, shall be exercised by the General Assembly.2. The Trusteeship Council, operating under the authority of the General Assembly, shall assist the General Assembly in carrying out these functions. THE TRUSTEESHIP COUNCILComposition //Article 86// 1. The Trusteeship Council shall consist of the following Members of the United Nations:a. those Members administering trust territories;b. such of those Members mentioned by name in Article 23 as are not administering trust territories; andc. as many other Members elected for three-year terms by the General Assembly as may be necessary to ensure that the total number of members of the Trusteeship Council is equally divided between those Members of the United Nations which administer trust territories and those which do not.2. Each member of the Trusteeship Council shall designate one specially qualified person to represent it therein.Functions and Powers //Article 87// The General Assembly and, under its authority, the Trusteeship Council, in carrying out their functions, may:a. consider reports submitted by the administering authority;b. accept petitions and examine them in consultation with the administering authority;c. provide for periodic visits to the respective trust territories at times agreed upon with the administering authority; andd. take these and other actions in conformity with the terms of the trusteeship agreements. //Article 88// The Trusteeship Council shall formulate a questionnaire on the political, economic, social, and educational advancement of the inhabitants of each trust territory, and the administering authority for each trust territory within the competence of the General Assembly shall make an annual report to the General Assembly upon the basis of such questionnaire.Voting //Article 89// 1. Each member of the Trusteeship Council shall have one vote.2. Decisions of the Trusteeship Council shall be made by a majority of the members present and voting.Procedure //Article 90// 1. The Trusteeship Council shall adopt its own rules of procedure, including the method of selecting its President.2. The Trusteeship Council shall meet as required in accordance with its rules, which shall include provision for the convening of meetings on the request of a majority of its members. //Article 91// The Trusteeship Council shall, when appropriate, avail itself of the assistance of the Economic and Social Council and of the specialized agencies in regard to matters with which they are respectively concerned. THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE //Article 92// The International Court of Justice shall be the principal judicial organ of the United Nations. It shall function in accordance with the annexed Statute which is based upon the Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice and forms an integral part of the present Charter. //Article 93// 1. All Members of the United Nations are ipso facto parties to the Statute of the International Court of Justice.2. A state which is not a Member of the United Nations may become a party to the Statute of the International Court of Justice on conditions to be determined in each case by the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council. //Article 94// 1. Each Member of the United Nations undertakes to comply with the decision of the International Court of Justice in any case to which it is a party.2. If any party to a case fails to perform the obligations incumbent upon it under a judgment rendered by the Court, the other party may have recourse to the Security Council, which may, if it deems necessary, make recommendations or decide upon measures to be taken to give effect to the judgment. //Article 95// Nothing in the present Charter shall prevent Members of the United Nations from entrusting the solution of their differences to other tribunals by virtue of agreements already in existence or which may be concluded in the future. //Article 96// 1. The General Assembly or the Security Council may request the International Court of Justice to give an advisory opinion on any legal question.2. Other organs of the United Nations and specialized agencies, which may at any time be so authorized by the General Assembly, may also request advisory opinions of the Court on legal questions arising within the scope of their activities. THE SECRETARIAT //Article 97// The Secretariat shall comprise a Secretary-General and such staff as the Organization may require. The Secretary-General shall be appointed by the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council. He shall be the chief administrative officer of the Organization. //Article 98// The Secretary-General shall act in that capacity in all meetings of the General Assembly, of the Security Council, of the Economic and Social Council, and of the Trusteeship Council, and shall perform such other functions as are entrusted to him by these organs. The Secretary-General shall make an annual report to the General Assembly on the work of the Organization. //Article 99// The Secretary-General may bring to the attention of the Security Council any matter which in his opinion may threaten the maintenance of international peace and security. //Article 100// 1. In the performance of their duties the Secretary-General and the staff shall not seek or receive instructions from any government or from any other authority external to the Organization. They shall refrain from any action which might reflect on their position as international officials responsible only to the Organization.2. Each Member of the United Nations undertakes to respect the exclusively international character of the responsibilities of the Secretary-General and the staff and not to seek to influence them in the discharge of their responsibilities. //Article 101// 1. The staff shall be appointed by the Secretary-General under regulations established by the General Assembly.2. Appropriate staffs shall be permanently assigned to the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, and, as required, to other organs of the United Nations. These staffs shall form a part of the Secretariat.3. The paramount consideration in the employment of the staff and in the determination of the conditions of service shall be the necessity of securing the highest standards of efficiency, competence, and integrity. Due regard shall be paid to the importance of recruiting the staff on as wide a geographical basis as possible. MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS //Article 102// 1. Every treaty and every international agreement entered into by any Member of the United Nations after the present Charter comes into force shall as soon as possible be registered with the Secretariat and published by it.2. No party to any such treaty or international agreement which has not been registered in accordance with the provisions of paragraph I of this Article may invoke that treaty or agreement before any organ of the United Nations. //Article 103// In the event of a conflict between the obligations of the Members of the United Nations under the present Charter and their obligations under any other international agreement, their obligations under the present Charter shall prevail. //Article 104// The Organization shall enjoy in the territory of each of its Members such legal capacity as may be necessary for the exercise of its functions and the fulfillment of its purposes. //Article 105// 1. The Organization shall enjoy in the territory of each of its Members such privileges and immunities as are necessary for the fulfillment of its purposes.2. Representatives of the Members of the United Nations and officials of the Organization shall similarly enjoy such privileges and immunities as are necessary for the independent exercise of their functions in connection with the Organization.3. The General Assembly may make recommendations with a view to determining the details of the application of paragraphs 1 and 2 of this Article or may propose conventions to the Members of the United Nations for this purpose. TRANSITIONAL SECURITY ARRANGEMENTS //Article 106// Pending the coming into force of such special agreements referred to in Article 43 as in the opinion of the Security Council enable it to begin the exercise of its responsibilities under Article 42, the parties to the Four-Nation Declaration, signed at Moscow October 30, 1943, and France, shall, in accordance with the provisions of paragraph 5 of that Declaration, consult with one another and as occasion requires with other Members of the United Nations with a view to such joint action on behalf of the Organization as may be necessary for the purpose of maintaining international peace and security. //Article 107// Nothing in the present Charter shall invalidate or preclude action, in relation to any state which during the Second World War has been an enemy of any signatory to the present Charter, taken or authorized as a result of that war by the Governments having responsibility for such action. AMENDMENTS //Article 108// Amendments to the present Charter shall come into force for all Members of the United Nations when they have been adopted by a vote of two thirds of the members of the General Assembly and ratified in accordance with their respective constitutional processes by two thirds of the Members of the United Nations, including all the permanent members of the Security Council. //Article 109// 1. A General Conference of the Members of the United Nations for the purpose of reviewing the present Charter may be held at a date and place to be fixed by a two-thirds vote of the members of the General Assembly and by a vote of any seven members of the Security Council. Each Member of the United Nations shall have one vote in the conference.2. Any alteration of the present Charter recommended by a two-thirds vote of the conference shall take effect when ratified in accordance with their respective constitutional processes by two thirds of the Members of the United Nations including all the permanent members of the Security Council.3. If such a conference has not been held before the tenth annual session of the General Assembly following the coming into force of the present Charter, the proposal to call such a conference shall be placed on the agenda of that session of the General Assembly, and the conference shall be held if so decided by a majority vote of the members of the General Assembly and by a vote of any seven members of the Security Council. RATIFICATION AND SIGNATURE //Article 110// 1. The present Charter shall be ratified by the signatory states in accordance with their respective constitutional processes.2. The ratifications shall be deposited with the Government of the United States of America, which shall notify all the signatory states of each deposit as well as the Secretary-General of the Organization when he has been appointed.3. The present Charter shall come into force upon the deposit of ratifications by the Republic of China, France, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the United States of America, and by a majority of the other signatory states. A protocol of the ratifications deposited shall thereupon be drawn up by the Government of the United States of America which shall communicate copies thereof to all the signatory states.4. The states signatory to the present Charter which ratify it after it has come into force will become original Members of the United Nations on the date of the deposit of their respective ratifications. //Article 111// The present Charter, of which the Chinese, French, Russian, English, and Spanish texts are equally authentic, shall remain deposited in the archives of the Government of the United States of America. Duly certified copies thereof shall be transmitted by that Government to the Governments of the other signatory states.IN FAITH WHEREOF the representatives of the Governments of the United Nations have signed the present Charter.DONE at the city of San Francisco the twenty-sixth day of June, one thousand nine hundred and forty-five.
 * Preamble**
 * CHAPTER I**
 * CHAPTER II**
 * CHAPTER III**
 * CHAPTER IV**
 * CHAPTER V**
 * CHAPTER VI**
 * CHAPTER VII**
 * CHAPTER VIII**
 * CHAPTER IX**
 * CHAPTER X**
 * CHAPTER XI**
 * CHAPTER XII**
 * CHAPTER XIII**
 * CHAPTER XIV**
 * CHAPTER XV**
 * CHAPTER XVI**
 * CHAPTER XVII**
 * CHAPTER XVIII**
 * CHAPTER XIX**

=The declaration of Independence=

In the summer of 1776, more than a year after American colonists had begun their rebellion against Great Britain, the Second Continental Congress debated a resolution for independence. A committee of five worked on the document, but it was Thomas Jefferson who prepared the initial draft and whose eloquent phrasing made it a masterpiece of political writing. The text of the declaration contains three major sections: a statement of principle, a list of grievances against King George III, and the formal announcement of independence. Listed at the bottom of the document are the names of the men who signed the Declaration. They are grouped by state and listed in alphabetical order.Their full names are provided, although some may have used abbreviations in the original document. Declaration of Independence When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the Powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed. That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, having its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security. Such has been the patient suffrance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.He has forbidden his Governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, has utterly neglected to attend to them.He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their Public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people.He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the Legislative Powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the meantime exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within.He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary Powers.He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance.He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures.He has affected to render the military independent of and superior to the Civil Power.He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their acts of pretended legislation.For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us: For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from Punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States: For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world: For imposing taxes on us without our Consent: For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury: For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offenses: For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighboring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies: For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and altering fundamentally, the Forms of our Governments: For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with Power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever:
 * In Congress July 4, 1776, The Unanimous Declaration of The Thirteen United States of America**

He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us.He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people.He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation.He has constrained our fellow Citizen taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions.In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people.Nor have We been wanting in attention to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connection and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends.We, therefore, the Representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress, assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name, and by authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the Protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor. Connecticut: Samuel Huntington, Roger Sherman, William Williams, Oliver Wolcott Delaware: Thomas McKean, George Read, Caesar Rodney Georgia: Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton Maryland: Charles Carroll, Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone Massachusetts: John Adams, Samuel Adams, Elbridge Gerry, John Hancock, Robert Treat Paine New Hampshire: Josiah Bartlett, Matthew Thornton, William Whipple New Jersey: Abraham Clark, John Hart, Francis Hopkinson, Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon New York: William Floyd, Francis Lewis, Philip Livingston, Lewis Morris North Carolina: Joseph Hewes, William Hooper, John Penn Pennsylvania: George Clymer, Benjamin Franklin, Robert Morris, John Morton, George Ross, Benjamin Rush, Jason Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson Rhode Island: William Ellery, Stephen Hopkins South Carolina: Thomas Heyward, Jr., Thomas Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middleton, Edward Rutledge Virginia: Carter Braxton, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Jefferson, Francis Lightfoot Lee, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Nelson, Jr., George Wythe

=**The rights of man declaration**=

With this declaration, the French National Assembly addressed many of the French people's grievances with the monarchy and established the ideals of the French Revolution. It remains one of the most important documents in Western political history. Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen 1789 The representatives of the French people, organized as a National Assembly, believing that the ignorance, neglect, or contempt of the rights of man are the sole cause of public calamities and of the corruption of governments, have determined to set forth in a solemn declaration the natural, inalienable, and sacred rights of man, in order that this declaration, being constantly before all the members of the social body, shall remind them continually of their rights and duties; in order that the acts of the legislative power, as well as those of the executive power, may be compared at any moment with the objects and purposes of all political institutions and may thus be more respected; and, lastly, in order that the grievances of the citizens, based hereafter upon simple and incontestable principles, shall tend to the maintenance of the constitution and redound to the happiness of all. Therefore the National Assembly recognizes and proclaims, in the presence and under the auspices of the Supreme Being, the following rights of man and of the citizen:Article 1. Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good.2. The aim of all political association is the preservation of the natural and imprescriptible rights of man. These rights are liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression.3. The principle of all sovereignty resides essentially in the nation. No body nor individual may exercise any authority which does not proceed directly from the nation.4. Liberty consists in the freedom to do everything which injures no one else; hence the exercise of the natural rights of each man has no limits except those which assure to the other members of the society the enjoyment of the same rights. These limits can only be determined by law.5. Law can only prohibit such actions as are hurtful to society. Nothing may be prevented which is not forbidden by law, and no one may be forced to do anything not provided for by law.6. Law is the expression of the general will. Every citizen has a right to participate personally, or through his representative, in its formation. It must be the same for all, whether it protects or punishes. All citizens, being equal in the eyes of the law, are equally eligible to all dignities and to all public positions and occupations, according to their abilities, and without distinction except that of their virtues and talents.7. No person shall be accused, arrested, or imprisoned except in the cases and according to the forms prescribed by law. Any one soliciting, transmitting, executing, or causing to be executed, any arbitrary order, shall be punished. But any citizen summoned or arrested in virtue of the law shall submit without delay, as resistance constitutes an offense.8. The law shall provide for such punishments only as are strictly and obviously necessary, and no one shall suffer punishment except it be legally inflicted in virtue of a law passed and promulgated before the commission of the offense.9. As all persons are held innocent until they shall have been declared guilty, if arrest shall be deemed indispensable, all harshness not essential to the securing of the prisoner's person shall be severely repressed by law.10. No one shall be disquieted on account of his opinions, including his religious views, provided their manifestation does not disturb the public order established by law.11. The free communication of ideas and opinions is one of the most precious of the rights of man. Every citizen may, accordingly, speak, write, and print with freedom, but shall be responsible for such abuses of this freedom as shall be defined by law.12. The security of the rights of man and of the citizen requires public military forces. These forces are, therefore, established for the good of all and not for the personal advantage of those to whom they shall be intrusted.13. A common contribution is essential for the maintenance of the public forces and for the cost of administration. This should be equitably distributed among all the citizens in proportion to their means.14. All the citizens have a right to decide, either personally or by their representatives, as to the necessity of the public contribution; to grant this freely; to know to what uses it is put; and to fix the proportion, the mode of assessment and of collection and the duration of the taxes.15. Society has the right to require of every public agent an account of his administration.16. A society in which the observance of the law is not assured, nor the separation of powers defined, has no constitution at all.17. Since property is an inviolable and sacred right, no one shall be deprived thereof except where public necessity, legally determined, shall clearly demand it, and then only on condition that the owner shall have been previously and equitably indemnified.Source: Robinson, James, ed., //Readings in European History.// Boston & New York: Ginn & Co., 1904.

Germanic tribes (100 BC to AD 300)
//Main articles: Germanic peoples and Germania//  Germania, in the early 2nd century (Harper and Brothers, 1849) The ethnogenesis of the Germanic tribes is assumed to have occurred during the Nordic Bronze Age, or at the latest, during the Pre-Roman Iron Age. From southern Scandinavia and northern Germany, the tribes began expanding south, east and west in the 1st century BC, coming into contact with the Celtic tribes of Gaul as well as Iranian, Baltic, and Slavic tribes in Eastern Europe. Little is known about early Germanic history, except through their recorded interactions with the Roman Empire, etymological research, and archaeological finds.[1] Under Augustus, the Roman General Publius Quinctilius Varus began to invade Germania (a term used by the Romans running roughly from the Rhine to the Urals), and it was in this period that the Germanic tribes became familiar with Roman tactics of warfare while maintaining their tribal identity. In AD 9, three Roman legions led by Varus were defeated by the Cheruscan leader Arminius in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. Modern Germany, as far as the Rhine and the Danube, thus remained outside the Roman Empire. By AD 100, the time of Tacitus' //Germania//, Germanic tribes settled along the Rhine and the Danube (the Limes Germanicus), occupying most of the area of modern Germany. The 3rd century saw the emergence of a number of large West Germanic tribes: Alamanni, Franks, Chatti, Saxons, Frisians, Sicambri, and Thuringii. Around 260, the Germanic peoples broke through the Limes and the Danube frontier into Roman-controlled lands.[2] //See also: List of meanings of countries' names// = The Franks = The Merovingian kings of the Germanic Franks conquered northern Gaul in 486 CE. In the fifth and sixth century the Merovingian kings conquered several other Germanic tribes and kingdoms and placed them under the control of autonomous dukes of mixed Frankish and native blood. Frankish Colonists were encouraged to move to the newly conquered territories. While the local Germanic tribes were allowed to preserve their laws, they were pressured into changing their religion.  = Frankish Empire = //Main article: Frankish Empire// After the fall of the Western Roman empire the Franks created an empire under the Merovingian kings and subjugated the other Germanic tribes. Swabia became a duchy under the Frankish Empire in 496, following the Battle of Tolbiac. Already king Chlothar I ruled the greater part of what is now Germany and made expeditions into Saxony while the Southeast of modern Germany was still under influence of the Ostrogoths. In 531 Saxons and Franks destroyed the Kingdom of Thuringia. Saxons inhabit the area down to the Unstrut river. During the partition of the Frankish empire their German territories were a part of Austrasia. In 718 the Franconian Mayor of the Palace Charles Martel marked war against Saxony, because of its help for the Neustrians. The Franconian Carloman started in 743 a new war against Saxony, because the Saxons gave aid to Duke Odilo of Bavaria. In 751 Pippin III, mayor of the palace under the Merovingian king, himself assumed the title of king and was anointed by the Church. The Frankish kings now set up as protectors of the Pope, Charlemagne launched a decades-long military campaign against their heathen rivals, the Saxons and the Avars. The Saxons (by the Saxon Wars (772-804)) and Avars were eventually overwhelmed and forcibly converted, and their lands were annexed by the Carolingian Empire.  = Middle Ages = //Main article: Holy Roman Empire//  The prince-electors of the Holy Roman Empire. (left to right: Archbishop of Cologne, Archbishop of Mainz, Archbishop of Trier, Count Palatine, Duke of Saxony, Margrave of Brandenburg and King of Bohemia) From 772 to 814 king Charlemagne extended the Carolingian empire into northern Italy and the territories of all west Germanic peoples, including the Saxons and the Bajuwari (Bavarians). In 800 Charlemagne's authority in Western Europe was confirmed by his coronation as emperor in Rome. The Frankish empire was divided into counties, and its frontiers were protected by border Marches. Imperial strongholds (//Kaiserpfalzen//) became economic and cultural centres (Aachen being the most famous [//citation needed//] ). Between 843 and 880, after fighting between Charlemagne's grandchildren, the Carolingian empire was partitioned into several parts in the Treaty of Verdun, the Treaty of Meerssen and the Treaty of Ribemont. The German empire developed out of the East Frankish kingdom, East Francia. From 919 to 936 the Germanic peoples (Franks, Saxons, Swabians and Bavarians) were united under Duke Henry of Saxony, who took the title of king. For the first time, the term Kingdom (Empire) of the Germans (" Regnum Teutonicorum ") was applied to a Frankish kingdom, even though Teutonicorum at its founding originally meant something closer to "//Realm of the Germanic peoples//" or "//Germanic Realm//" than realm of the Germans. In 936 Otto I the Great was crowned at Aachen. He strengthened the royal authority by appointing bishops and abbots as princes of the Empire (//Reichsfürsten//), thereby establishing a national church (//Reichskirche//). In 951 Otto the Great married the widowed Queen Adelheid, thereby winning the Lombard crown. Outside threats to the kingdom were contained with the decisive defeat of the Magyars of Hungary near Augsburg at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955 and the subjugation of Slavs between the Elbe and the Oder rivers. In 962 Otto I was crowned emperor in Rome, taking the succession of Charlemagne and establishing a strong Frankish influence over the Papacy. In 1033 the Kingdom of Burgundy was incorporated into the Holy Roman Empire during the reign of Conrad II, the first emperor of the Salian dynasty. And the Germans tried to stay up against the Roman run over. During the reign of his son Henry III the Holy Roman Empire supported the Cluniac reform of the Church - the Peace of God, the prohibition of simony (the purchase of clerical offices) and the celibacy of priests. Imperial authority over the Pope reached its peak. An imperial stronghold (//Pfalz//) was built at Goslar, as the Empire continued its expansion to the East. In the Investiture Dispute which began between Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII over appointments to ecclesiastical offices, the emperor was compelled to submit to the Pope at Canossa in 1077, after having been excommunicated. In 1122 a temporary reconciliation was reached between Henry V and the Pope with the Concordat of Worms. The consequences of the investiture dispute were a weakening of the Ottonian National Church //Reichskirche//, and a strengthening of the Imperial secular princes. Castle of the Teutonic Order in Malbork (German: Marienburg) The time between 1096 and 1291 was the age of the crusades. Knightly religious orders were established, including the Templars, the Knights of St John and the Teutonic Order. From 1100, new towns were founded around imperial strongholds, castles, bishops' palaces and monasteries. The towns began to establish municipal rights and liberties (see German town law), while the rural population remained in a state of serfdom. In particular, several cities became Imperial Free Cities, which did not depend on princes or bishops, but were immediately subject to the Emperor. The towns were ruled by patricians (merchants carrying on long-distance trade). The craftsmen formed guilds, governed by strict rules, which sought to obtain control of the towns. Trade with the East and North intensified, as the major trading towns came together in the Hanseatic League, under the leadership of Lübeck. The German colonization and the chartering of new towns and villages began into largely Slav-inhabited territories east of the Elbe, such as Bohemia, Silesia, Pomerania, Poland, and Livonia (see also Ostsiedlung). Between 1152 and 1190, during the reign of Frederick I (Barbarossa), of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, an accommodation was reached with the rival Guelph party by the grant of the duchy of Bavaria to Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony. Austria became a separate duchy by virtue of the Privilegium Minus in 1156. Barbarossa tried to reassert his control over Italy. In 1177 a final reconciliation was reached between the emperor and the Pope in Venice. In 1180 Henry the Lion was outlawed and Bavaria was given to Otto of Wittelsbach (founder of the Wittelsbach dynasty which was to rule Bavaria until 1918), while Saxony was divided. From 1184 to 1186 the Hohenstaufen empire under Barbarossa reached its peak in the //Reichsfest// (imperial celebrations) held at Mainz and the marriage of his son Henry in Milan to the Norman princess Constance of Sicily. The power of the feudal lords was undermined by the appointment of "ministerials" (unfree servants of the Emperor) as officials. Chivalry and the court life flowered, leading to a development of German culture and literature (see Wolfram von Eschenbach). Between 1212 and 1250 Frederick II established a modern, professionally administered state in Sicily. He resumed the conquest of Italy, leading to further conflict with the Papacy. In the Empire, extensive sovereign powers were granted to ecclesiastical and secular princes, leading to the rise of independent territorial states. The struggle with the Pope sapped the Empire's strength, as Frederick II was excommunicated three times. After his death, the Hohenstaufen dynasty fell, followed by an interregnum during which there was no Emperor. Beginning in 1226 under the auspices of Emperor Frederick II, the Teutonic Knights began their conquest of Prussia after being invited to Chełmno Land by the Polish Duke Konrad I of Masovia. The native Baltic Prussians were conquered and Christianized by the Knights with much warfare, and numerous German towns were established along the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea. From 1300, however, the Empire started to lose territory on all its frontiers. The failure of negotiations between Emperor Louis IV with the papacy led in 1338 to the declaration at Rhense by six electors to the effect that election by all or the majority of the electors automatically conferred the royal title and rule over the empire, without papal confirmation. Between 1346 and 1378 Emperor Charles IV of Luxembourg, king of Bohemia, sought to restore the imperial authority. Around the middle of the 14th century, the Black Death ravaged Germany and Europe. From the Dance of Death by Hans Holbein (1491) Around 1350 Germany and almost the whole of Europe were ravaged by the Black Death. Jews were persecuted on religious and economic grounds; many fled to Poland. The Golden Bull of 1356 stipulated that in future the emperor was to be chosen by four secular electors (the King of Bohemia, the Count Palatine of the Rhine, the Duke of Saxony, and the Margrave of Brandenburg) and three spiritual electors (the Archbishops of Mainz, Trier, and Cologne). After the disasters of the 14th century, early-modern European society gradually came into being as a result of economic, religious and political changes. A money economy arose which provoked social discontent among knights and peasants. Gradually, a proto-capitalistic system evolved out of feudalism. The Fugger family gained prominence through commercial and financial activities and became financiers to both ecclesiastical and secular rulers. The knightly classes found their monopoly on arms and military skill undermined by the introduction of mercenary armies and foot soldiers. Predatory activity by "robber knights" became common. From 1438 the Habsburgs, who controlled most of the southeast of the Empire (more or less modern-day Austria and Slovenia, and Bohemia and Moravia after the death of King Louis II in 1526), maintained a constant grip on the position of the Holy Roman Emperor until 1806 (with the exception of the years between 1742 and 1745). This situation, however, gave rise to increased disunity among the Holy Roman Empires territorial rulers and prevented sections of the country from coming together and forming nations in the manner of France and England. During his reign from 1493 to 1519, Maximilian I tried to reform the Empire: an Imperial Supreme Court (//Reichskammergericht//) was established, imperial taxes were levied, the power of the Imperial Diet (//Reichstag//) was increased. The reforms were, however, frustrated by the continued territorial fragmentation of the Empire. 

Early modern Germany
//see List of states in the Holy Roman Empire for subdivisions and the political structure// = Reformation and Thirty Years War = Around the beginning of the 16th century there was much discontent in the Holy Roman Empire with abuses in the Catholic Church and a desire for reform. In 1517 the Reformation began: Luther nailed his 95 theses against the abuse of indulgences to the church door in Wittenberg. In 1520 Luther was outlawed at the Diet of Worms. But the Reformation spread rapidly, helped by the Emperor Charles V's wars with France and the Turks. Hiding in the Wartburg Castle, Luther translated the Bible, establishing the basis of modern German. In 1524 the Peasants' War broke out in Swabia, Franconia and Thuringia against ruling princes and lords, following the preachings of Reformist priests. But the revolts, which were assisted by war-experienced noblemen like Götz von Berlichingen and Florian Geyer (in Franconia), and by the theologian Thomas Münzer (in Thuringia), were soon repressed by the territorial princes. From 1545 the Counter-Reformation began in Germany. The main force was provided by the Jesuit order, founded by the Spaniard Ignatius of Loyola. Central and north-eastern Germany were by this time almost wholly Protestant, whereas western and southern Germany remained predominantly Catholic. In 1546, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V defeated the Schmalkaldic League, an alliance of Protestant rulers. The Peace of Augsburg in 1555 brought recognition of the Lutheran faith. But the treaty also stipulated that the religion of a state was to be that of its ruler (Cuius regio, eius religio). In 1556 Charles V abdicated. The Habsburg Empire was divided, as Spain was separated from the Imperial possessions. In 1608/1609 the Protestant Union and the Catholic League were formed. From 1618 to 1648 the Thirty Years' War ravaged in the Holy Roman Empire. The causes were the conflicts between Catholics and Protestants, the efforts by the various states within the Empire to increase their power and the Emperor's attempt to achieve the religious and political unity of the Empire. The immediate occasion for the war was the uprising of the Protestant nobility of Bohemia against the emperor (Defenestration of Prague), but the conflict was widened into a European War by the intervention of King Christian IV of Denmark (1625-29), Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden (1630-48) and France under Cardinal Richelieu, the regent of the young Louis XIV (1635-48). Germany became the main theatre of war and the scene of the final conflict between France and the Habsburgs for predominance in Europe. The war resulted in large areas of Germany being laid waste, a loss of approximately a third of its population, and in a general impoverishment. The war ended in 1648 with the Peace of Westphalia, signed in Münster and Osnabrück: Imperial territory was lost to France and Sweden and the Netherlands left the Holy Roman Empire after being de facto seceded for 80 years already. The imperial power declined further as the states' rights were increased.  = End of the Holy Roman Empire = The German Empire in 1705, map "L’Empire d’Allemagne" from Nicolas de Fer  After the Peace of Hubertsburg in 1763, Prussia became a European great power. The rivalry between Prussia and Austria for the leadership of Germany began From 1640, Brandenburg-Prussia had started to rise under the Great Elector, Frederick William. The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 strengthened it even further, through the acquisition of East Pomerania. A system of rule based on absolutism was established. In 1701 Elector Frederick of Brandenburg was crowned "King //in// Prussia". From 1713 to 1740, King Frederick William I, also known as the "Soldier King", established a highly centralized state. Meanwhile Louis XIV of France had conquered parts of Alsace and Lorraine (1678-1681), and had invaded and devastated the Palatinate (1688-1697). Louis XIV benefited from the Empire's problems with the Turks, which were menacing Austria. He ultimately had to relinquish the Palatinate, though. In 1683 the Turks were defeated outside Vienna by a Polish relief army led by King Jan Sobieski of Poland while the city itself was defended by Imperial and Austrian troops under the command of Charles IV, Duke of Lorraine. Hungary was reconquered, and later became a new destination for German settlers. Austria, under the Habsburgs, developed into a great power. In the War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748) Maria Theresa fought successfully for recognition of her succession to the throne. But in the Silesian Wars and in the Seven Years' War she had to cede Silesia to Frederick II, the Great, of Prussia. After the Peace of Hubertsburg in 1763 between Austria, Prussia and Saxony, Prussia became a European great power. This gave the start to the rivalry between Prussia and Austria for the leadership of Germany. From 1763, against resistance from the nobility and citizenry, an "enlightened absolutism" was established in Prussia and Austria, according to which the ruler was to be "the first servant of the state". The economy developed and legal reforms were undertaken, including the abolition of torture and the improvement in the status of Jews; the emancipation of the peasants began. Education was promoted. In 1772-1795 Prussia took part in the partitions of Poland, occupying western territories of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which led to centuries of Polish resistance against German rule and persecution. The French Revolution sparked a new war between France and several of its Eastern neighbors, including Prussia and Austria. Following the Peace of Basel in 1795 with Prussia, the west bank of the Rhine was ceded to France. Napoleon I of France relaunched the war against the Empire. In 1803, under the //"Reichsdeputationshauptschluss"// (a resolution of a committee of the Imperial Diet meeting in Regensburg), he abolished almost all the ecclesiastical and the smaller secular states and most of the imperial free cities. New medium-sized states were established in south-western Germany. In turn, Prussia gained territory in north-western Germany. The Holy Roman Empire was formally dissolved on 6 August 1806 when the last Holy Roman Emperor Francis II (from 1804, Emperor Francis I of Austria) resigned. Francis II's family continued to be called Austrian emperors until 1918. In 1806 the Confederation of the Rhine was established under Napoleon's protection. After the Prussian army was defeated by the French revolutionary forces at Jena and Auerstedt, the Peace of Tilsit was signed in 1807: Prussia ceded all its possessions west of the Elbe to France and the kingdom of Westphalia was established under Napoleon's brother Jérome. Some of the territories Prussia conquered from Poland were regained by Duchy of Warsaw. From 1808 to 1812 Prussia was reconstructed, and a series of reforms were enacted by Freiherr vom Stein and Freiherr von Hardenberg, including the regulation of municipal government, the liberation of the peasants and the emancipation of the Jews. A reform of the army was undertaken by the Prussian generals Gerhard von Scharnhorst and August von Gneisenau. In 1813 the Wars of Liberation began, following the destruction of Napoleon's army in Russia (1812). After the Battle of the Nations at Leipzig, Germany was liberated from French rule. The Confederation of the Rhine was dissolved. In 1815 Napoleon was finally defeated at Waterloo by the Britain's Duke of Wellington and by Prussia's Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher. 
 * [[image:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Emblem-important.svg/40px-Emblem-important.svg.png width="40" height="40"]] ||  ||
 * [[image:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Imperial_Circles-2005-10-15-en.png/200px-Imperial_Circles-2005-10-15-en.png width="200" height="196" caption=""The Holy Roman Empire, 1512."]] [[image:http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png width="15" height="11"]] "The Holy Roman Empire, 1512. ||
 * [[image:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Luther46c.jpg/200px-Luther46c.jpg width="200" height="215" caption="Martin Luther, German reformer, 1529"]] [[image:http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png width="15" height="11"]] Martin Luther, German reformer, 1529 ||

Restoration and Revolution
//Main articles: German Confederation and Revolutions of 1848 in the German states//  Liberal and nationalist pressure led to the Revolution of 1848 in the German states After the fall of Napoleon, European monarchs and statesmen convened in Vienna in 1814 for the reorganization of European affairs, under the leadership of the Austrian Prince Metternich. The political principles agreed upon at this Congress of Vienna included the restoration, legitimacy and solidarity of rulers for the repression of revolutionary and nationalist ideas. On the territory of the former "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation", the German Confederation (//Deutscher Bund//) was founded, a loose union of 39 states (35 ruling princes and 4 free cities) under Austrian leadership, with a Federal Diet (//Bundestag//) meeting in Frankfurt am Main. In 1817, inspired by liberal and patriotic ideas of a united Germany, student organisations gathered for the "Wartburg festival" at Wartburg Castle, at Eisenach in Thuringia, on the occasion of which reactionary books were burnt. In 1819 the student Karl Ludwig Sand murdered the writer August von Kotzebue, who had scoffed at liberal student organizations. Prince Metternich used the killing as an occasion to call a conference in Karlsbad, which Prussia, Austria and eight other states attended, and which issued the Karlsbad Decrees: censorship was introduced, and universities were put under supervision. The decrees also gave the start to the so-called "persecution of the demagogues", which was directed against individuals who were accused of spreading revolutionary and nationalist ideas. Among the persecuted were the poet Ernst Moritz Arndt, the publisher Johann Joseph Görres and the "Father of Gymnastics" Ludwig Jahn. In 1834 the Zollverein was established, a customs union between Prussia and most other German states, but excluding Austria. Growing discontent with the political and social order imposed by the Congress of Vienna led to the outbreak, in 1848, of the March Revolution in the German states. In May the German National Assembly (the Frankfurt Parliament) met in St. Paul's Church in Frankfurt am Main to draw up a national German constitution. But the 1848 revolution turned out to be unsuccessful: King Frederick William IV of Prussia refused the imperial crown, the Frankfurt parliament was dissolved, the ruling princes repressed the risings by military force and the German Confederation was re-established by 1850. In 1862 Prince Bismarck was nominated chief minister of Prussia - against the opposition of liberals, who saw him as a reactionary. In 1863-64, disputes between Prussia and Denmark grew over Schleswig, which - unlike Holstein - was not part of the German Confederation, and which Danish nationalists wanted to incorporate into the Danish kingdom. The dispute led to the Second War of Schleswig, in the course of which Prussia, joined by Austria, defeated Denmark. Denmark was forced to cede both the duchy of Schleswig and the duchy of Holstein to Austria and Prussia. In the aftermath, the management of the two duchies caused growing tensions between Austria and Prussia, which ultimately led to the Austro-Prussian War (1866). The Prussians were victorious in this war, carrying a decisive victory at the Battle of Königgratz under the command of Helmuth von Moltke.  = North German Federation = At the Battle of Königgrätz, the Austro-Prussian rivalry for the leadership of Germany was ultimately decided in favour of Prussia//Main article: North German Federation// In 1866 the German Confederation was dissolved. In its place the North German Federation (German //Norddeutscher Bund//) was established, under the leadership of Prussia. Austria was excluded, and would remain outside German affairs for most of the remaining 19th and the 20th centuries. The North German Federation was a transitory group that existed from 1867 to 1871, between the dissolution of the German Confederation and the founding of the German Empire, led by Otto Von Bismarck who was declared chancellor. With it, Prussia established control over the 22 states of northern Germany and, via the //Zollverein//, southern Germany. 

German Empire
//Main article: German Empire// = Age of Bismarck = On 18 January 1871, the German Empire is proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles. Bismarck appears in white. The German Empire of 1871. By excluding Austria, Bismarck chose a "little German" solution. Differences between France and Prussia over the possible accession to the Spanish throne of a German candidate — whom France opposed — was the French pretext to declare the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71). Due to their defensive treaties, joint southern-German and Prussian troops, under the command of Moltke, repelled French troops which had occupied Saarbrücken and proceeded to invade France in August 1870. After a few weeks, the French army was finally forced to capitulate in the fortress of Sedan. French Emperor Napoleon III was taken prisoner and the Second French Empire collapsed, yet the new republic decided to prolong the war for several months. Months after the Siege of Paris was lifted, the Peace Treaty of Frankfurt was signed: France was obliged to cede what became known as Alsace-Lorraine to Germany. The ceded area consisted of Alsace and parts of Lorraine. The fact that many small, French-speaking areas were included was used by France to denounce the new border as hypocrisy, since Germany had justified it by the native Germanic dialects and culture of the areas inhabitants. During the Siege of Paris, the German princes assembled in the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles and proclaimed the Prussian King Wilhelm I as the "German Emperor" on 18 January 1871. The German Empire was thus founded, with 25 states, three of which were Hanseatic free cities, and Bismarck, again, served as Chancellor. It was dubbed the "Little German" solution, since Austria was not included. Bismarck's domestic policies as Chancellor of Germany were characterized by his fight against perceived enemies of the Protestant Prussian state. In the so-called Kulturkampf (1872–1878), he tried to limit the influence of the Roman Catholic Church and of its political arm, the Catholic Centre Party, through various measures — like the introduction of civil marriage — but without much success. Milions of non-Germans subjects in the German Empire, like the Polish, Danish and French minorities, were discriminated against [1] [2] and a policy of Germanization was implemented. The other perceived threat was the rise of the Socialist Workers' Party (later known as the Social Democratic Party of Germany), whose declared aim was the establishment of a new socialist order through the transformation of existing political and social conditions. From 1878, Bismarck tried to repress the social democratic movement by outlawing the party's organization, its assemblies and most of its newspapers. Through the introduction of a social insurance system, on the other hand, he hoped to win the support of the working classes for the Empire. Bismarck's priority was to protect Germany's expanding power through a system of alliances and an attempt to contain crises until Germany was fully prepared to initiate them. Of particular importance, in this context, was the containment and isolation of France, because Bismarck feared that France would form an alliance with Russia and take revenge for its loss of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany. The Three Emperor's League was signed in 1872 by Russia, Austria and Germany. It stated that republicanism and socialism were common enemies and that the three powers would discuss any matters concerning foreign policy. Bismarck needed good relations with Russia in order to keep France isolated. In 1879, Bismarck formed a Dual Alliance of Germany and Austria-Hungary, with the aim of mutual military assistance in the case of an attack from Russia, which was not satisfied with the agreement reached at the Congress of Berlin. The establishment of the Dual Alliance led Russia to take a more conciliatory stance, and in 1887, the so-called Reinsurance Treaty was signed between Germany and Russia: in it, the two powers agreed on mutual military support in the case that France attacked Germany, or in case of an Austrian attack on Russia. In 1882, Italy joined the Dual Alliance to form a Triple Alliance. Italy wanted to defend its interests in North Africa against France's colonial policy. In return for German and Austrian support, Italy committed itself to assisting Germany in the case of a French military attack. For a long time, Bismarck had refused to give in to Crown Prince Wilhelm II's aspirations of making Germany a world power through the acquisition of German colonies ("a place in the sun", originally a statement of Bernhard von Bülow). Bismarck wanted to avoid tensions between the European great powers that would threaten the security of Germany at all cost. But when, between 1880 and 1885, the foreign situation proved auspicious, Bismarck gave way, and a number of colonies were established overseas: in Africa, these were Togo, the Cameroons, German South-West Africa and German East Africa; in Oceania, they were German New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago and the Marshall Islands. In 1888 Kaiser Wilhelm I died at age 91, and his terminally ill son Friedrich III ruled for only 99 days before his death. The 29 year old and ambitious Wilhelm II, Friedrich's son, acceded to the throne. Political and personal differences between Bismarck and the new monarch, who wanted to be "his own chancellor", eventually caused Bismarck to resign in 1890.  = Wilhelminian Era = A postage stamp from the Carolines, dating back to the time when the islands were ruled by the German Empire. The new //Weltpolitik// of Kaiser Wilhelm II led to frictions with other imperialist powers. When Bismarck resigned, Wilhelm II had declared that he would continue the foreign policy of the old chancellor. But soon, a new course was taken, with the aim of increasing Germany's influence in the world (//Weltpolitik//). The Reinsurance Treaty with Russia was not renewed. Instead, France formed an alliance with Russia, against the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. The Triple Alliance itself was undermined by differences between Austria and Italy. From 1898, German colonial expansion in East Asia (Jiaozhou Bay, the Marianas, the Caroline Islands, Samoa) led to frictions with the United Kingdom, Russia, Japan and the United States. The construction of the Baghdad Railway, financed by German banks and heavy industry, and aimed at connecting the North Sea with the Persian Gulf via the Bosporus, also collided with British and Russian. toc

To protect Germany's overseas trade and colonies, [|Admiral von Tirpitz] started a programme of warship construction in 1898. This posed a direct threat to British hegemony on the seas, with the result that negotiations for an alliance between Germany and Britain broke down. Germany was increasingly isolated. //Main article: [|History of Germany during World War I]// Imperialist power politics and the determined pursuit of national interests ultimately led to the outbreak in 1914 of the [|First World War], sparked by the assassination, on [|June 28], [|1914], of the Austrian heir-apparent [|Franz Ferdinand] and his wife at [|Sarajevo], the capital of [|Bosnia-Herzegovina] by a [|Serbian] nationalist. The theorized underlying causes have included the opposing policies of the European states, the armaments race, German-British rivalry, the difficulties of the Austro-Hungarian multinational state, Russia's Balkan policy and overhasty mobilisations and ultimatums (the underlying belief being that the war would be short). Germany fought on the side of Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire against Russia, France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan and several other smaller states. Fighting also spread to the Near East and the German colonies. In the west, Germany fought a war of attrition with bloody battles. After a quick march through [|Belgium], German troops were halted on the [|Marne], north of [|Paris]. The frontlines in France changed little until the end of the war. In the east, despite there being initially no decisive victories against the Russian army, the trapping and defeat of large parts of the Russian contingent at the Battle of Tannenberg, followed by smaller Austrian and German successes led to a breakdown of Russian forces and an imposed peace. The British naval blockade in the [|North Sea] had crippling effects on Germany's supplies of raw materials and foodstuffs. The entry of the United States into the war in 1917 following Germany's declaration of //unrestricted submarine warfare// marked a decisive turning-point against Germany. At the end of October, units of the German Navy in [|Kiel], in northern Germany, refused to set sail for a last, large-scale operation in a war which they saw as good as lost. On [|November 3], the [|uprising] spread to other cities. So-called workers' and soldiers' councils were established. Kaiser Wilhelm II and all German ruling princes abdicated. On [|November 9], the Social Democrat [|Philipp Scheidemann] proclaimed a Republic. On [|November 11], [|an armistice] ending the war was signed at [|Compiègne]. 

[[|edit]] Weimar Republic
//Main article: [|Weimar Republic]// States of Germany at the time of the Weimar Republic, with [|Prussia] in blue On [|28 June] [|1919] the [|Treaty of Versailles] was signed. Germany was to cede [|Alsace-Lorraine], Eupen-Malmédy, [|North Schleswig], and the [|Memel] area. [|Poland] was restored and most of the provinces of [|Posen] and [|West Prussia], and some areas of [|Upper Silesia] were reincorporated into the reformed country after plebiscites and independence uprisings. All German colonies were to be handed over to the Allies. The left and right banks of the [|Rhine] were to be permanently demilitarised. The industrially important [|Saarland] was to be governed by the [|League of Nations] for 15 years and its coalfields administered by France. At the end of that time a plebiscite was to determine the Saar's future status. To ensure execution of the treaty's terms, Allied troops would occupy the left (German) bank of the Rhine for a period of 5–15 years. The German army was to be limited to 100,000 officers and men; the general staff was to be dissolved; vast quantities of war material were to be handed over and the manufacture of munitions rigidly curtailed. The navy was to be similarly reduced, and no military aircraft were allowed. Germany and its allies were to accept the sole responsibility of the war, and were to pay financial reparations for all loss and damage suffered by the Allies. The humiliating peace terms provoked bitter indignation throughout Germany, and seriously weakened the new democratic regime. On [|11 August] [|1919] the [|Weimar] constitution came into effect, with [|Friedrich Ebert] as first President. The two biggest enemies of the new democratic order, however, had already been constituted. In December 1918, the [|German Communist Party] (KPD) was founded, followed in January 1919 by the establishment of the German Workers' Party, later known as the [|National Socialist German Workers' Party] (NSDAP). Both parties would make reckless use of the freedoms guaranteed by the new constitution in their fight against the Weimar Republic. In the first months of 1920, the [|Reichswehr] was to be reduced to 100,000 men, in accordance with the Treaty of Versailles. This included the dissolution of many [|Freikorps] - units made up of volunteers. Some of them made difficulties. The discontent was exploited by the extreme right-wing politician [|Wolfgang Kapp]. He let the rebelling Freikorps march on Berlin and proclaimed himself //Reich// Chancellor ([|Kapp Putsch]). After only four days the coup d'état collapsed, due to lack of support by the civil servants and the officers. Other cities were shaken by strikes and rebellions, which were bloodily suppressed. Faced with animosity from Britain and France and the retreat of American power from Europe, in 1922 Germany was the first state to establish diplomatic relations with the new [|Soviet Union]. Under the [|Treaty of Rapallo], Germany accorded the Soviet Union [|de jure] recognition, and the two signatories mutually cancelled all pre-war debts and renounced war claims. When Germany defaulted on its reparation payments, French and Belgian troops occupied the heavily industrialised Ruhr district (January 1923). The German government encouraged the population of the Ruhr to [|passive resistance]: shops would not sell goods to the foreign soldiers, coal-mines would not dig for the foreign troops, trams in which members of the occupation army had taken seat would be left abandoned in the middle of the street. The passive resistance proved effective, insofar as the occupation became a loss-making deal for the French government. But the Ruhr fight also led to [|hyperinflation], and many who lost all their fortune would become bitter enemies of the Weimar Republic, and voters of the anti-democratic right. The [|Rentenmark], introduced by [|Chancellor Stresemann]'s government in November 1923 to stop hyperinflation, ushered in a period of relative economic prosperity (until 1929) In September 1923, the deteriorating economic conditions led Chancellor [|Gustav Stresemann] to call an end to the passive resistance in the Ruhr. In November, his government introduced a new currency, the [|Rentenmark] (later: [|Reichsmark]), together with other measures to stop the hyperinflation. In the following six years the economic situation improved. In 1928, Germany's industrial production even regained the pre-war levels of 1913. On the evening of [|November 8], six hundred armed [|SA] men surrounded a beer hall in [|Munich], where the heads of the Bavarian state and the local //Reichswehr// had gathered for a rally. The storm troopers were led by [|Adolf Hitler]. Born in 1889 in [|Austria], a former volunteer in the German army during WWI, now a member of a new party called [|NSDAP], he was largely unknown until then. Hitler tried to force those present to join him and to march on to Berlin to seize power ([|Beer Hall Putsch]). Hitler was later arrested and condemned to five years in prison, but was released at the end of 1924 after less than one year of detention. The national elections of 1924 led to a swing to the right (//Ruck nach rechts//). [|Field Marshal Hindenburg], a supporter of the monarchy, [|was elected President in 1925]. In October 1925 the [|Treaty of Locarno] was signed between Germany, France, Belgium, the United Kingdom and Italy, which recognized Germany's borders with France and Belgium. Moreover, Britain, Italy and Belgium undertook to assist France in the case that German troops marched into the demilitarised Rheinland. The Treaty of Locarno paved the way for Germany's admission to the [|League of Nations] in 1926. The [|stock market crash] of 1929 on [|Wall Street] marked the beginning of the [|Great Depression]. The effects of the ensuing world economic crisis were also felt in Germany, where the economic situation rapidly deteriorated. In July 1931, the //Darmstätter und Nationalbank// - one of the biggest German banks - failed, and, in early 1932, the number of unemployed rose to more than 6,000,000. In addition to the flagging economy came political problems, due to the inability by the political parties represented in the [|Reichstag] to build a governing majority. In March 1930, President Hindenburg appointed [|Heinrich Brüning] Chancellor. To push through his package of austerity measures against a majority of Social Democrats, Communists and the NSDAP, Brüning made use of emergency decrees, and even dissolved Parliament. In March and April of 1932, Hindenburg was re-elected in the [|German presidential election of 1932]. The NSDAP was the big winner in the national elections of July 1932. It gained 38% of the vote, making it the biggest party in the Reichstag. The Communist KPD came third, with 15%. Together, the anti-democratic parties of right and left were now able to hold the majority of seats in Parliament. The NSDAP was particularly successful among young voters, who were unable to find a place in vocational training, with little hope for a future job; among the //petite bourgeoisie// (lower middle class) which had lost its assets in the hyperinflation of 1923; among the rural population; and among the army of unemployed. In new elections in November 1932, the NSDAP's share of the vote declined slightly, but it remained the biggest party in the Parliament. On [|January 30], [|1933], pressured by former Chancellor [|Franz von Papen] and other conservatives, President Hindenburg finally appointed Hitler Chancellor. 

[[|edit]] German Reich
//Main articles: [|Nazi Germany], [|The Holocaust], and [|Military history of Germany during World War II]//

[[|edit]] Nazi revolution or 'Seizure of Power'
In order to secure a majority for his NSDAP in the Reichstag, [|Hitler] called for new elections. On the evening of [|27 February] [|1933], a [|fire] was set in the Reichstag building. Hitler was swift to paint an alleged Communist uprising on the wall, and convinced President Hindenburg to sign the [|Reichstag Fire Decree]. This decree, which would remain in force until 1945, repealed important political and human rights of the Weimar constitution. Communist agitation was banned, but at this time not the Communist Party itself. Eleven thousand Communists and Socialists were arrested and brought into [|concentration camps], where they were at the mercy of the [|Gestapo], the newly established secret police force (9,000 were found guilty and very many executed). Communist Reichstag deputies were taken into //protective custody// (despite their constitutional privileges). Despite the terror and unprecedented propaganda, the last free General Elections of [|March 5] failed to bring the majority for the NSDAP that Hitler had hoped for. Together with the [|German National People's Party] (DNVP), however, he was able to form a slim majority government. With accommodations to the Catholic [|Centre Party Germany], Hitler succeeded in convincing a required two-thirds of a rigged Parliament to pass the [|Enabling act of 1933] which gave his government full legislative power. Only the Social Democrats voted against the Act. The Enabling Act formed the basis for the [|Dictatorship], dissolution of the [|Länder]; the trade unions and all political parties other than the [|National Socialist (Nazi) Party] were suppressed. A centralised totalitarian state was established, no longer based on the liberal [|Weimar] constitution. Germany left the [|League of Nations]. The coalition [|Parliament] was rigged on this fateful [|23 March] [|1933] by defining the absence of arrested and murdered deputies as voluntary and therefore cause for their exclusion as wilful absentees. Subsequently in July the Centre Party was voluntarily dissolved in a //quid pro quo// with the [|Holy See] under the //anti-communist// [|Pope Pius XI] for the [|Reichskonkordat]; and by these maneuvers Hitler achieved movement of these Catholic voters into the Nazi party, and a long-awaited international diplomatic acceptance of his regime. The Communist Party was proscribed in April 1933. However, many leaders of the Nazi [|SA] were disappointed. The Chief of Staff of the SA, [|Ernst Röhm], was pressing for the SA to be incorporated into the [|Wehrmacht] under his supreme command. Hitler felt threatened by these plans. On the weekend of [|June 30], [|1934], he gave order to the [|SS] to seize Röhm and his lieutenants, and to execute them without trial (known as the [|Night of the Long Knives]). The SS became an independent organisation under the command of the //Reichsführer SS// [|Heinrich Himmler]. He would become the supervisor of the //[|Gestapo]// and of the concentration camps, soon also of the ordinary police. Hitler also established the [|Waffen-SS] as a separate troop. The regime showed particular hostility towards the [|Jews]. In September 1935, the Reichstag passed the so-called [|Nuremberg race laws] directed against Jewish citizens. Jews lost their German citizenship, and were banned from marrying Germans. About 500,000 individuals were affected by the new rules. Hitler re-established the German air force and reintroduced universal military service. The open rearmament was in flagrant breach of the Treaty of Versailles, but neither the United Kingdom, France or Italy went beyond issuing notes of protest. In 1936 German troops [|marched into the demilitarised Rhineland]. In this case, the [|Treaty of Locarno] would have obliged the United Kingdom to intervene in favour of France. But despite protests by the French government, Britain chose to do nothing about it. The coup strengthened Hitler's standing in Germany. His reputation was going to increase further with the [|1936 Summer Olympics], which were held in the same year in Berlin and in [|Garmisch-Partenkirchen], and which proved another great propaganda success for the regime. 

[[|edit]] Expansion and defeat
After establishing the "Rome-Berlin axis" with [|Mussolini], and signing the [|Anti-Comintern Pact] with [|Japan] - which was joined by [|Italy] a year later in 1937 - Hitler felt able to take the offensive in foreign policy. On [|12 March] [|1938], German troops marched into [|Austria], where an attempted Nazi coup had been unsuccessful in 1934. When Hitler entered [|Vienna], he was greeted by loud cheers. Four weeks later, 99% of Austrians voted in favour of the annexation ([|Anschluss]) of their country to the [|German Reich]. Hitler thereby fulfilled the old idea of an all encompassing German Reich with the inclusion of [|Austria] - the "greater Germany" solution that [|Bismarck] had shunned when, in 1871, he united the German-speaking lands under [|Prussian] leadership. Although the annexation denounced the [|Treaty of Saint-Germain], which expressedly forbade the unification of Austria with Germany, the western powers once again merely protested. After Austria, Hitler turned to [|Czechoslovakia], where the 3.5 million-strong [|Sudeten German] minority was demanding equal rights and self-government. At the [|Munich Conference] of September 1938, Hitler, the Italian leader Benito Mussolini, British Prime Minister [|Neville Chamberlain] and French Prime Minister [|Édouard Daladier] agreed upon the cession of Sudeten territory to the German Reich by [|Czechoslovakia]. Hitler thereupon declared that all of German Reich's territorial claims had been fulfilled. However, hardly six months after the Munich Agreement, in March 1939, Hitler used the smoldering quarrel between [|Slovaks] and [|Czechs] as a pretext for taking over the rest of Czechoslovakia as the [|Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia]. In the same month, he secured the return of [|Memel] from [|Lithuania] to Germany. British Prime Minister [|Chamberlain] was forced to acknowledge that his [|policy of appeasement] towards Hitler had failed. In six years, the Nazi regime prepared the country for [|World War II]. The Nazi leadership attempted to remove or subjugate the [|Jewish population of Nazi Germany] and later in the occupied countries through [|forced deportation] and, ultimately, [|genocide] now known as [|the Holocaust]. A similar policy applied to the various ethnic and national groups considered [|subhuman] such as [|Poles], [|Roma] or [|Russians]. These groups were seen as threats to the purity of Germany's [|Aryan] race. There were also many groups, such as the mentally handicapped and those who were physically challenged from birth, which were singled out as being detrimental to Aryan purity. After annexing the [|Sudetenland] border country of [|Czechoslovakia] (October 1938), and taking over the rest of the Czech lands as a protectorate (March 1939), the German Reich and the [|Soviet Union] invaded [|Poland] on first September 1939 predominantly as part of the Wehrmacht operation codenamed //[|Fall Weiss]//. Territorial losses of modern Germany 1919-1945. By 1945, the German Reich and its [|Axis] partners ([|Italy] and [|Japan]) had been defeated, chiefly by the forces of the [|Soviet Union], the [|USA], [|Britain], [|France] and [|Canada]. Much of [|Europe] lay in ruins, over sixty million people had been killed (most of them civilians), including approximately six million Jews and five million non-Jews in what became known as the [|Holocaust]. World War II resulted in the destruction of Germany's political and economic infrastructure and led directly to its partition, considerable loss of territory (especially in the east), and historical legacy of guilt and shame. Soviet Soldiers storming the Berlin metro 1945.

[[|edit]] Germany since 1945
//Main article: [|History of Germany since 1945]// Germans frequently refer to 1945 as the //Stunde Null// (zero hour) to describe the near-total collapse of their country. At the [|Potsdam Conference], Germany was divided into four military occupation zones by the [|Allies], see [|Partitions of Germany]; the three western zones would form the **Federal Republic of Germany** (commonly known as [|West Germany]), while part of the Soviet zone became the **German Democratic Republic** (commonly known as [|East Germany]), both founded in 1949. [|West Germany] was established as a liberal democratic republic while [|East Germany] became a [|Communist State] under the influence of the [|Soviet Union]. Also in Potsdam, the allies agreed that the provinces east of the Oder and Neisse rivers (the [|Oder-Neisse line]) were transferred to [|Poland] and [|Russia] ([|Kaliningrad]). The agreement also set forth the abolition of [|Prussia] and the repatriation of Germans living in those territories, and formalized the [|German exodus from Eastern Europe]. In the process of the [|expulsion] millions of these German expellees from the lost [|pre-1945 German east provinces] died, and many suffered from exhaustion and dehydration. Prisoners of war in the streets of Berlin. In the immediate post-war years the German population lived on near starvation levels,[|[3]] and the Allied economic policy was one of de-industrialisation[|[4]] ([|Morgenthau Plan]) in order to preclude any future German war-making capability. U.S. policy began to change at the end of 1946[|[5]] ([|Restatement of Policy on Germany]), and by mid 1947, after lobbying by the [|Joint Chiefs of Staff], and Generals [|Clay] and [|Marshall], the Truman administration finally realized that economic recovery in Europe could not go forward without the reconstruction of the German industrial base on which it had previously had been dependent.[|[6]] In July, Truman rescinded on "national security grounds"[|[7]] the punitive [|JCS 1067], which had directed the U.S. forces of occupation in Germany to "take no steps looking toward the economic rehabilitation of Germany." It was replaced by JCS 1779, which instead stressed that "[a]n orderly, prosperous Europe requires the economic contributions of a stable and productive Germany."[|[8]] West Germany eventually came to enjoy prolonged economic growth beginning in the early 1950s (//[|Wirtschaftswunder]//). The recovery occurred largely because of the previously forbidden currency reform of June 1948 and to a minor degree by U.S. assistance through [|Marshall Plan] loans.[|[9]][|[10]] West Germany joined [|NATO] in 1955 and was a founding member of the [|European Economic Community] in 1958. Across the border, East Germany soon became the richest, most advanced country in the [|Warsaw Pact], but many of its citizens looked to the West for political freedoms and economic prosperity. 

[[|edit]] Reunification
Relations between the two post-war German states remained icy until the West German Chancellor [|Willy Brandt] launched a highly controversial rapprochement with the East European communist states (//[|Ostpolitik]//) in the 1970s, culminating in the [|Warschauer Kniefall] on [|7 December] [|1970]. Although anxious to relieve serious hardships for divided families and to reduce friction, West Germany under Brandt's //Ostpolitik// was intent on holding to its concept of "two German states in one German nation." Relations improved, however, and in September 1973, East Germany and West Germany were admitted to the United Nations. In the postwar years, [|Volkswagen] became a very important element, symbolically and economically, of West German economic recovery (the "[|Wirtschaftswunder]"). The [|Berlin Wall] that had partitioned [|Berlin] in front of the [|Brandenburg Gate] shortly after the opening of the wall. During the summer of 1989, rapid changes took place in East Germany, which ultimately led to [|German reunification]. Growing numbers of East Germans emigrated to West Germany via [|Hungary] after Hungary's reformist government opened its borders. Thousands of East Germans also tried to reach the West by staging sit-ins at West German diplomatic facilities in other East European capitals. The exodus generated demands within East Germany for political change, and mass demonstrations in several cities continued to grow. Faced with civil unrest, East German leader [|Erich Honecker] was forced to resign in October, and on [|9 November], East German authorities unexpectedly allowed East German citizens to enter West Berlin and West Germany. Hundreds of thousands of people took advantage of the opportunity; new crossing points were opened in the Berlin Wall and along the border with West Germany. This led to the acceleration of the process of reforms in East Germany that ended with the [|German reunification] that came into force on [|3 October] [|1990]. 

[[|edit]] Role in the European Union
Together with [|France] and other EU states, the new Germany has played the leading role in the [|European Union]. Germany (especially under Chancellor [|Helmut Kohl]) was one of the main supporters of the wish of many East European countries to join the EU. Germany is at the forefront of European states seeking to exploit the momentum of monetary union to advance the creation of a more unified and capable European political, defence and security apparatus. The German chancellor expressed an interest in a permanent seat for Germany in the [|UN Security Council], identifying France, [|Russia] and [|Japan] as countries that explicitly backed Germany's bid. 

[[|edit]] Historiography
//Main article: [|Sonderweg]// A major historiographical debate about the German history concerns the //[|Sonderweg]//, the alleged “special path” that separated German history from the “normal” course of historical development, and whatever or not Nazi Germany was the inevitable result of Sonderweg. Proponents of the //Sonderweg// theory such as [|Fritz Fischer] point to such events of the [|Revolution of 1848], the [|authoritarian] of the Second Empire and the continuation of the Imperial elite into the Weimar and Nazi periods. Opponents such as [|Gerhard Ritter] of the //Sonderweg// theory argue that proponents of the theory are guilty of seeking selective examples, and there was much contingency and chance in German history. In addition, there was much debate within the supporters of the //Sonderweg// concept as for the reasons for the //Sonderweg//, and whatever or not the //Sonderweg// ended in 1945.